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Yxans historia

The oldest axes

The Stone Age is the period in human history that marks the advent of tool production. The name comes from the fact that most of the period’s cutting tools are made from stone. The Stone Age can be subdivided into:

The Early Stone Age, when humans lived by hunting and fishing, which spans the time from the first production of stone tools around 2.5 million years ago to the end of the last Ice Age around 10,000–11,000 years ago – and

The Late Stone Age, which covers the period when farming became the main means of subsistence. Sometimes there is reference to a “Copper Age” as the transition period from Stone Age to Bronze Age.

The axe is one of the oldest tools used by mankind. The oldest axes was known as hand axes.

The hand axe was a pear-shaped and roughly chipped stone tool brought to an even point, with a broad handle. The hand axe was probably used for many different tasks, everything from butchering animals to digging up tubers.

Gradually, the design was refined to include knives, scrapers and arrowheads, amongst other things.

When, much later, the axe was given a wooden handle, several different types of axes were developed, which may be divided into two main groups: Non-shaft-hole axes and shaft-hole axes.

Bild-1.jpg

Hand axes had no shaft and were used by Homo ergaster as far back as 1.6 million years ago.

Homo ergaster is the name used for fossils of humans of the Homo genus who lived in Eastern and Southern Africa between 1.9 and 1.4 million years ago.

The species name ergaster comes from the Greek word for worker and was chosen after the discovery of several tools, such as stone axes and cutters, close to skeletal remains from this group.

Non-shaft-hole axes

As the name suggests, the non-shaft-hole axes had no hole for the handle and were generally made from flint, greenstone or slate.

 

  • The core axe is a roughly hewn, unpolished flint axe with a pointed butt and the widest part often towards the cutting edge. The core axe appeared during the Early Stone Age.
  • The flake axe is a type of axe made from a large flake chipped from a core, whose edge is used for the broad edge of the axe. Use wear analysis shows that the flake axe was probably used for preparing skins, rather than woodwork or other tasks.  
  • The Lihult axe (Norwegian Nøstvet axe) is a roughly hewn greenstone axe. The edge is polished and the butt bears signs of hammering. Characteristic of Western Sweden, Southern Norway and particularly the Oslofjord during the latter part of the Early Stone Age.
  • The thin-butted axe is usually made from flint, but some versions in other stone occur in both flint-rich and flint-poor areas. They tend to be seen as a working axe, and originate from roughly 3700–3200 BC. The older types are generally longer and broader and have a thinner butt than the later thick-butted axe. The thin-butted axe was good for forest clearing, probably in the context of ring-barking.
  • The round stone axe is a greenstone axe with an oval or rounded profile. Only the edge is polished, the rest of the axe is often finely hammered. The round stone axe belongs to the Early Stone Age, but also occurs in large numbers during the early part of the Late Stone Age. It was particularly common in Central Sweden and the lower parts of Northern Sweden. It also occurs in eastern Småland, Bohuslän and Skåne, and on Gotland.
  • The hollow-edged axe has a concave blade, like a modern gouge. Axes with a hollow edge may be of different types and occur during different periods. These axes were probably used for woodwork, like a gouge or chisel for example.

The shaft-hole axes

The shaft-hole axes were made using various stones, although not flint, and were more likely to be status weapons or ceremonial objects. Examples of these include the boat axes used in the Battle Axe cultures of Europe in around 3200–1800 BC (read more about the Battle Axe culture below).

 

  • The polygonal axe is a kind of battle axe that belongs to the Late Stone Age and dates to around 3000–3400 BC. It is usually made from greenstone or some other exclusive stone, and is fitted with a shaft hole. It also tends to have various special features, such as a flared edge, an arched butt, an angled body, grooves and ridges. The features are hammered out and then polished across the whole surface. The polygonal axe is seen as a copy of the Central European copper axes, but even in these areas, polygonal axes of various kinds have been found.
  • The double-headed battle axe is a shaft-hole axe from around 3400–2900 BC. It occurred mainly around Rügen in Germany and on Zealand in Denmark, as the Battle Axe culture established itself in the surrounding areas. The axe has a flared edge that became very prominent among the later types, which also gained a flared butt. The double-edged axes were always made from hard and homogeneous stones such as porphyry, and they were also finely polished.
  • The boat axe is an old name for the shaft-hole axe of the Swedish-Norwegian Battle Axe culture that is now simply referred to as the battle axe. In recent years, the purpose of the battle axe as a weapon has been called into question, not least because the shaft hole is sometimes so small that it could not be attached to a sufficiently strong handle. It may then have served a ceremonial purpose and as an identity marker for the upper echelons of society. Similar axes appeared across a large swathe of North-Eastern Europe, although there are clear differences in the details between different cultural areas.

Haftless axes & Hafted axes

The oldest axes

The Stone Age is the period in human history that marks the advent of tool production. The name comes from the fact that most of the period’s cutting tools are made from stone. The Stone Age can be subdivided into:

The Early Stone Age, when humans lived by hunting and fishing, which spans the time from the first production of stone tools around 2.5 million years ago to the end of the last Ice Age around 10,000–11,000 years ago – and

The Late Stone Age, which covers the period when farming became the main means of subsistence. Sometimes there is reference to a “Copper Age” as the transition period from Stone Age to Bronze Age.

The axe is one of the oldest tools used by mankind. The oldest axes was known as hand axes.

The hand axe was a pear-shaped and roughly chipped stone tool brought to an even point, with a broad handle. The hand axe was probably used for many different tasks, everything from butchering animals to digging up tubers.

Gradually, the design was refined to include knives, scrapers and arrowheads, amongst other things.

When, much later, the axe was given a wooden handle, several different types of axes were developed, which may be divided into two main groups: Non-shaft-hole axes and shaft-hole axes.

Bild-1.jpg

Hand axes had no shaft and were used by Homo ergaster as far back as 1.6 million years ago.

Homo ergaster is the name used for fossils of humans of the Homo genus who lived in Eastern and Southern Africa between 1.9 and 1.4 million years ago.

The species name ergaster comes from the Greek word for worker and was chosen after the discovery of several tools, such as stone axes and cutters, close to skeletal remains from this group.

Non-shaft-hole axes

As the name suggests, the non-shaft-hole axes had no hole for the handle and were generally made from flint, greenstone or slate.

 

  • The core axe is a roughly hewn, unpolished flint axe with a pointed butt and the widest part often towards the cutting edge. The core axe appeared during the Early Stone Age.
  • The flake axe is a type of axe made from a large flake chipped from a core, whose edge is used for the broad edge of the axe. Use wear analysis shows that the flake axe was probably used for preparing skins, rather than woodwork or other tasks.  
  • The Lihult axe (Norwegian Nøstvet axe) is a roughly hewn greenstone axe. The edge is polished and the butt bears signs of hammering. Characteristic of Western Sweden, Southern Norway and particularly the Oslofjord during the latter part of the Early Stone Age.
  • The thin-butted axe is usually made from flint, but some versions in other stone occur in both flint-rich and flint-poor areas. They tend to be seen as a working axe, and originate from roughly 3700–3200 BC. The older types are generally longer and broader and have a thinner butt than the later thick-butted axe. The thin-butted axe was good for forest clearing, probably in the context of ring-barking.
  • The round stone axe is a greenstone axe with an oval or rounded profile. Only the edge is polished, the rest of the axe is often finely hammered. The round stone axe belongs to the Early Stone Age, but also occurs in large numbers during the early part of the Late Stone Age. It was particularly common in Central Sweden and the lower parts of Northern Sweden. It also occurs in eastern Småland, Bohuslän and Skåne, and on Gotland.
  • The hollow-edged axe has a concave blade, like a modern gouge. Axes with a hollow edge may be of different types and occur during different periods. These axes were probably used for woodwork, like a gouge or chisel for example.

The shaft-hole axes

The shaft-hole axes were made using various stones, although not flint, and were more likely to be status weapons or ceremonial objects. Examples of these include the boat axes used in the Battle Axe cultures of Europe in around 3200–1800 BC (read more about the Battle Axe culture below).

 

  • The polygonal axe is a kind of battle axe that belongs to the Late Stone Age and dates to around 3000–3400 BC. It is usually made from greenstone or some other exclusive stone, and is fitted with a shaft hole. It also tends to have various special features, such as a flared edge, an arched butt, an angled body, grooves and ridges. The features are hammered out and then polished across the whole surface. The polygonal axe is seen as a copy of the Central European copper axes, but even in these areas, polygonal axes of various kinds have been found.
  • The double-headed battle axe is a shaft-hole axe from around 3400–2900 BC. It occurred mainly around Rügen in Germany and on Zealand in Denmark, as the Battle Axe culture established itself in the surrounding areas. The axe has a flared edge that became very prominent among the later types, which also gained a flared butt. The double-edged axes were always made from hard and homogeneous stones such as porphyry, and they were also finely polished.
  • The boat axe is an old name for the shaft-hole axe of the Swedish-Norwegian Battle Axe culture that is now simply referred to as the battle axe. In recent years, the purpose of the battle axe as a weapon has been called into question, not least because the shaft hole is sometimes so small that it could not be attached to a sufficiently strong handle. It may then have served a ceremonial purpose and as an identity marker for the upper echelons of society. Similar axes appeared across a large swathe of North-Eastern Europe, although there are clear differences in the details between different cultural areas.

Haftless axes & Hafted axes

The oldest axes

The Stone Age is the period in human history that marks the advent of tool production. The name comes from the fact that most of the period’s cutting tools are made from stone. The Stone Age can be subdivided into:

The Early Stone Age, when humans lived by hunting and fishing, which spans the time from the first production of stone tools around 2.5 million years ago to the end of the last Ice Age around 10,000–11,000 years ago – and

The Late Stone Age, which covers the period when farming became the main means of subsistence. Sometimes there is reference to a “Copper Age” as the transition period from Stone Age to Bronze Age.

The axe is one of the oldest tools used by mankind. The oldest axes was known as hand axes.

The hand axe was a pear-shaped and roughly chipped stone tool brought to an even point, with a broad handle. The hand axe was probably used for many different tasks, everything from butchering animals to digging up tubers.

Gradually, the design was refined to include knives, scrapers and arrowheads, amongst other things.

When, much later, the axe was given a wooden handle, several different types of axes were developed, which may be divided into two main groups: Non-shaft-hole axes and shaft-hole axes.

Bild-1.jpg

Hand axes had no shaft and were used by Homo ergaster as far back as 1.6 million years ago.

Homo ergaster is the name used for fossils of humans of the Homo genus who lived in Eastern and Southern Africa between 1.9 and 1.4 million years ago.

The species name ergaster comes from the Greek word for worker and was chosen after the discovery of several tools, such as stone axes and cutters, close to skeletal remains from this group.

Non-shaft-hole axes

As the name suggests, the non-shaft-hole axes had no hole for the handle and were generally made from flint, greenstone or slate.

 

  • The core axe is a roughly hewn, unpolished flint axe with a pointed butt and the widest part often towards the cutting edge. The core axe appeared during the Early Stone Age.
  • The flake axe is a type of axe made from a large flake chipped from a core, whose edge is used for the broad edge of the axe. Use wear analysis shows that the flake axe was probably used for preparing skins, rather than woodwork or other tasks.  
  • The Lihult axe (Norwegian Nøstvet axe) is a roughly hewn greenstone axe. The edge is polished and the butt bears signs of hammering. Characteristic of Western Sweden, Southern Norway and particularly the Oslofjord during the latter part of the Early Stone Age.
  • The thin-butted axe is usually made from flint, but some versions in other stone occur in both flint-rich and flint-poor areas. They tend to be seen as a working axe, and originate from roughly 3700–3200 BC. The older types are generally longer and broader and have a thinner butt than the later thick-butted axe. The thin-butted axe was good for forest clearing, probably in the context of ring-barking.
  • The round stone axe is a greenstone axe with an oval or rounded profile. Only the edge is polished, the rest of the axe is often finely hammered. The round stone axe belongs to the Early Stone Age, but also occurs in large numbers during the early part of the Late Stone Age. It was particularly common in Central Sweden and the lower parts of Northern Sweden. It also occurs in eastern Småland, Bohuslän and Skåne, and on Gotland.
  • The hollow-edged axe has a concave blade, like a modern gouge. Axes with a hollow edge may be of different types and occur during different periods. These axes were probably used for woodwork, like a gouge or chisel for example.

The shaft-hole axes

The shaft-hole axes were made using various stones, although not flint, and were more likely to be status weapons or ceremonial objects. Examples of these include the boat axes used in the Battle Axe cultures of Europe in around 3200–1800 BC (read more about the Battle Axe culture below).

 

  • The polygonal axe is a kind of battle axe that belongs to the Late Stone Age and dates to around 3000–3400 BC. It is usually made from greenstone or some other exclusive stone, and is fitted with a shaft hole. It also tends to have various special features, such as a flared edge, an arched butt, an angled body, grooves and ridges. The features are hammered out and then polished across the whole surface. The polygonal axe is seen as a copy of the Central European copper axes, but even in these areas, polygonal axes of various kinds have been found.
  • The double-headed battle axe is a shaft-hole axe from around 3400–2900 BC. It occurred mainly around Rügen in Germany and on Zealand in Denmark, as the Battle Axe culture established itself in the surrounding areas. The axe has a flared edge that became very prominent among the later types, which also gained a flared butt. The double-edged axes were always made from hard and homogeneous stones such as porphyry, and they were also finely polished.
  • The boat axe is an old name for the shaft-hole axe of the Swedish-Norwegian Battle Axe culture that is now simply referred to as the battle axe. In recent years, the purpose of the battle axe as a weapon has been called into question, not least because the shaft hole is sometimes so small that it could not be attached to a sufficiently strong handle. It may then have served a ceremonial purpose and as an identity marker for the upper echelons of society. Similar axes appeared across a large swathe of North-Eastern Europe, although there are clear differences in the details between different cultural areas.

Haftless axes & Hafted axes

De äldsta yxorna

Stenåldern är den period i människans historia som inleds med att man börjar tillverka verktyg. Namnet kommer av att de flesta av periodens skärande verktyg är av sten. Stenåldern kan delas in i två perioder.

Äldre stenåldern (jägarstenåldern), då människan levde av jakt och fiske, omspänner tiden från det att de första stenredskapen tillverkades för ca 2,5 miljoner år sedan till slutet av den senaste istiden för ca 10 000 – 11 000 år sedan.

Yngre stenåldern (bondestenåldern) för tiden då jordbruket blev människans huvudinriktning. Ibland räknar man även med en “kopparstenålder” innan bronsåldern slutligen tar vid.

Yxan är en av de äldsta verktyg som människan använt. De äldsta yxorna var så kallade handyxor.

Handyxan var ett päronformat grovt tillhugget stenredskap med jämn avsmalnad spets och ett brett handtag. Förmodligen användes handyxan till många olika saker, allt från att stycka djur till att gräva upp rotknölar.

Efterhand användes handyxan även avslagen till knivar, skrapor och pilspetsar.

När yxan långt senare försågs med skaft, utvecklades flera olika typer av yxor som kan delas in i två huvudgrupper: Skafthålslösa yxor och Skafthålsyxor.

Bild-1.jpg

Handyxor eller handkilar, saknade skaft och användes redan av homo ergaster för 1,6 miljoner år sedan.

Homo ergaster är det namn som används för fossil av människor i släktet Homo som levde i östra och södra Afrika för mellan 1,9 och 1,4 miljoner år sedan.

Artnamnet ergaster härstammar från grekiskans ord för arbetare och valdes efter upptäckten av flera verktyg som stenyxor och stenklyvare nära skelettlämningar från denna grupp.

Skafthålslösa yxor

De skafthålslösa yxorna saknade, som namnet anger, skafthål och var i allmänhet tillverkade av flinta, grönsten eller skiffer.

Kärnyxa är en grovt tillslagen, oslipad flintyxa med spetsig nacke och bredden ofta störst mot eggen. Kärnyxan förekom under äldre stenålder.

Skivyxa är en yxtyp som är tillverkad av ett kraftigt avslag, vars egg har utnyttjats till den breda yxeggen. Slitspårsanalyser visar att skivyxor troligen användes till skinnberedning och inte träarbete eller andra sysslor.

Lihultsyxa (Norska Nøstvetyxa) är en grovt tillslagen yxa av grönsten. Eggen är slipad och på nacken finns spår av tillslagningen. Karakteristisk för västra Sverige, södra Norge och särskilt i Oslofjorden under senare delen av äldre stenålder.

Tunnackig yxa är en yxa som vanligtvis tillverkades av flinta, men enstaka kopior i andra bergarter förekommer också både i flintrika och flintfattiga områden. De betraktas ofta som en arbetsyxa. De härstammar grovt sett från 3700-3200 f.Kr. De äldre typerna är generellt sett längre och bredare samt har tunnare nacke än den senare tjocknackiga yxan. Den tunnackiga yxan var bland annat effektiv för skogsröjning och då troligen använd i samband med ringbarkning.

Trindyxa, är en grönstensyxa med oval eller trind profil. Endast eggen är slipad, resten av yxan oftast fint bultad. Trindyxan tillhör äldre stenålder, men förekommer också i stort antal under den äldre delen av yngre stenålder. Särskilt vanlig i Mellansverige och södra Norrland. Förekommer även ofta i östra Småland, på Gotland, i Bohuslän och Skåne.

Håleggad yxa är en yxa med konkavt eggparti, som ett nutida håljärn. Yxor med hålegg kan vara av olika typ och förekomma under olika perioder. Troligen användes yxorna för träarbete bland annat som ett håljärn eller stämjärn.

Skafthålsyxor

Skafthålsyxorna tillverkades av olika stenarter, dock inte flinta, och var snarare lyxvapen eller ceremoniella föremål. Exempel på sådana är de båtyxor som användes av stridsyxekulturerna i Europa cirka 3200-1800 f.Kr. (se mer om stridsyxekulturen nedan).

Mångkantsyxa är en slags stridsyxa som tillhör den yngre stenåldern och kan dateras till tiden runt 3000-3400 f.Kr. Är vanligen av grönsten eller andra mer exklusiva bergarter och är försedd med skafthål, samt ofta olika typer av utmärkande särdrag, såsom utsvängd egg, välvd nackknopp, vinklad yxkropp, ränna och ås. De är bultade och har sedan slipats över hela ytan. Mångkantsyxan ses som en kopia av de centraleuropeiska kopparyxorna, men även i dessa områden förekommer mångkantsyxor av liknande slag.

Dubbeleggad stridsyxa är en skafthålsyxa tiden runt 3400-2900 f.Kr. Den förekom främst runt Rügen i Tyskland och på Själland, samtidigt som stridsyxekulturen etablerades i omliggande områden. Yxan har en utsvängd egg som blev mycket framträdande hos de yngre typerna och fick då även ett utsvängt nackparti. De dubbeleggade yxorna är alltid utarbetade ur hårda och homogena bergarter som till exempel porfyrit och de är dessutom fint slipade.

Båtyxa, är en äldre benämning på den svensk-norska stridsyxekulturens skafthålsyxa, som numera normalt kallas stridsyxa. De senaste åren har stridsyxans syfte som vapen ifrågasatts, bland annat för att skafthålen ibland är för små för att kunna fästas på ett tillräckligt starkt skaft. Alternativt kan den ha tjänat ett ceremoniellt syfte och som identitetsmarkör för det övre skiktet i samhället. Liknande yxor förekom inom ett stort område av nordöstra Europa, men i detalj finns det tydliga skillnader mellan olika kulturområden.

Skafthålslösa yxor & Skafthålsyxor

The oldest axes

The Stone Age is the period in human history that marks the advent of tool production. The name comes from the fact that most of the period’s cutting tools are made from stone. The Stone Age can be subdivided into:

The Early Stone Age, when humans lived by hunting and fishing, which spans the time from the first production of stone tools around 2.5 million years ago to the end of the last Ice Age around 10,000–11,000 years ago – and

The Late Stone Age, which covers the period when farming became the main means of subsistence. Sometimes there is reference to a “Copper Age” as the transition period from Stone Age to Bronze Age.

The axe is one of the oldest tools used by mankind. The oldest axes was known as hand axes.

The hand axe was a pear-shaped and roughly chipped stone tool brought to an even point, with a broad handle. The hand axe was probably used for many different tasks, everything from butchering animals to digging up tubers.

Gradually, the design was refined to include knives, scrapers and arrowheads, amongst other things.

When, much later, the axe was given a wooden handle, several different types of axes were developed, which may be divided into two main groups: Non-shaft-hole axes and shaft-hole axes.

Bild-1.jpg

Hand axes had no shaft and were used by Homo ergaster as far back as 1.6 million years ago.

Homo ergaster is the name used for fossils of humans of the Homo genus who lived in Eastern and Southern Africa between 1.9 and 1.4 million years ago.

The species name ergaster comes from the Greek word for worker and was chosen after the discovery of several tools, such as stone axes and cutters, close to skeletal remains from this group.

Non-shaft-hole axes

As the name suggests, the non-shaft-hole axes had no hole for the handle and were generally made from flint, greenstone or slate.

 

  • The core axe is a roughly hewn, unpolished flint axe with a pointed butt and the widest part often towards the cutting edge. The core axe appeared during the Early Stone Age.
  • The flake axe is a type of axe made from a large flake chipped from a core, whose edge is used for the broad edge of the axe. Use wear analysis shows that the flake axe was probably used for preparing skins, rather than woodwork or other tasks.  
  • The Lihult axe (Norwegian Nøstvet axe) is a roughly hewn greenstone axe. The edge is polished and the butt bears signs of hammering. Characteristic of Western Sweden, Southern Norway and particularly the Oslofjord during the latter part of the Early Stone Age.
  • The thin-butted axe is usually made from flint, but some versions in other stone occur in both flint-rich and flint-poor areas. They tend to be seen as a working axe, and originate from roughly 3700–3200 BC. The older types are generally longer and broader and have a thinner butt than the later thick-butted axe. The thin-butted axe was good for forest clearing, probably in the context of ring-barking.
  • The round stone axe is a greenstone axe with an oval or rounded profile. Only the edge is polished, the rest of the axe is often finely hammered. The round stone axe belongs to the Early Stone Age, but also occurs in large numbers during the early part of the Late Stone Age. It was particularly common in Central Sweden and the lower parts of Northern Sweden. It also occurs in eastern Småland, Bohuslän and Skåne, and on Gotland.
  • The hollow-edged axe has a concave blade, like a modern gouge. Axes with a hollow edge may be of different types and occur during different periods. These axes were probably used for woodwork, like a gouge or chisel for example.

The shaft-hole axes

The shaft-hole axes were made using various stones, although not flint, and were more likely to be status weapons or ceremonial objects. Examples of these include the boat axes used in the Battle Axe cultures of Europe in around 3200–1800 BC (read more about the Battle Axe culture below).

 

  • The polygonal axe is a kind of battle axe that belongs to the Late Stone Age and dates to around 3000–3400 BC. It is usually made from greenstone or some other exclusive stone, and is fitted with a shaft hole. It also tends to have various special features, such as a flared edge, an arched butt, an angled body, grooves and ridges. The features are hammered out and then polished across the whole surface. The polygonal axe is seen as a copy of the Central European copper axes, but even in these areas, polygonal axes of various kinds have been found.
  • The double-headed battle axe is a shaft-hole axe from around 3400–2900 BC. It occurred mainly around Rügen in Germany and on Zealand in Denmark, as the Battle Axe culture established itself in the surrounding areas. The axe has a flared edge that became very prominent among the later types, which also gained a flared butt. The double-edged axes were always made from hard and homogeneous stones such as porphyry, and they were also finely polished.
  • The boat axe is an old name for the shaft-hole axe of the Swedish-Norwegian Battle Axe culture that is now simply referred to as the battle axe. In recent years, the purpose of the battle axe as a weapon has been called into question, not least because the shaft hole is sometimes so small that it could not be attached to a sufficiently strong handle. It may then have served a ceremonial purpose and as an identity marker for the upper echelons of society. Similar axes appeared across a large swathe of North-Eastern Europe, although there are clear differences in the details between different cultural areas.

Haftless axes & Hafted axes

De äldsta yxorna

Stenåldern är den period i människans historia som inleds med att man börjar tillverka verktyg. Namnet kommer av att de flesta av periodens skärande verktyg är av sten. Stenåldern kan delas in i två perioder.

Äldre stenåldern (jägarstenåldern), då människan levde av jakt och fiske, omspänner tiden från det att de första stenredskapen tillverkades för ca 2,5 miljoner år sedan till slutet av den senaste istiden för ca 10 000 – 11 000 år sedan.

Yngre stenåldern (bondestenåldern) för tiden då jordbruket blev människans huvudinriktning. Ibland räknar man även med en “kopparstenålder” innan bronsåldern slutligen tar vid.

Yxan är en av de äldsta verktyg som människan använt. De äldsta yxorna var så kallade handyxor.

Handyxan var ett päronformat grovt tillhugget stenredskap med jämn avsmalnad spets och ett brett handtag. Förmodligen användes handyxan till många olika saker, allt från att stycka djur till att gräva upp rotknölar.

Efterhand användes handyxan även avslagen till knivar, skrapor och pilspetsar.

När yxan långt senare försågs med skaft, utvecklades flera olika typer av yxor som kan delas in i två huvudgrupper: Skafthålslösa yxor och Skafthålsyxor.

Bild-1.jpg

Handyxor eller handkilar, saknade skaft och användes redan av homo ergaster för 1,6 miljoner år sedan.

Homo ergaster är det namn som används för fossil av människor i släktet Homo som levde i östra och södra Afrika för mellan 1,9 och 1,4 miljoner år sedan.

Artnamnet ergaster härstammar från grekiskans ord för arbetare och valdes efter upptäckten av flera verktyg som stenyxor och stenklyvare nära skelettlämningar från denna grupp.

Skafthålslösa yxor

De skafthålslösa yxorna saknade, som namnet anger, skafthål och var i allmänhet tillverkade av flinta, grönsten eller skiffer.

Kärnyxa är en grovt tillslagen, oslipad flintyxa med spetsig nacke och bredden ofta störst mot eggen. Kärnyxan förekom under äldre stenålder.

Skivyxa är en yxtyp som är tillverkad av ett kraftigt avslag, vars egg har utnyttjats till den breda yxeggen. Slitspårsanalyser visar att skivyxor troligen användes till skinnberedning och inte träarbete eller andra sysslor.

Lihultsyxa (Norska Nøstvetyxa) är en grovt tillslagen yxa av grönsten. Eggen är slipad och på nacken finns spår av tillslagningen. Karakteristisk för västra Sverige, södra Norge och särskilt i Oslofjorden under senare delen av äldre stenålder.

Tunnackig yxa är en yxa som vanligtvis tillverkades av flinta, men enstaka kopior i andra bergarter förekommer också både i flintrika och flintfattiga områden. De betraktas ofta som en arbetsyxa. De härstammar grovt sett från 3700-3200 f.Kr. De äldre typerna är generellt sett längre och bredare samt har tunnare nacke än den senare tjocknackiga yxan. Den tunnackiga yxan var bland annat effektiv för skogsröjning och då troligen använd i samband med ringbarkning.

Trindyxa, är en grönstensyxa med oval eller trind profil. Endast eggen är slipad, resten av yxan oftast fint bultad. Trindyxan tillhör äldre stenålder, men förekommer också i stort antal under den äldre delen av yngre stenålder. Särskilt vanlig i Mellansverige och södra Norrland. Förekommer även ofta i östra Småland, på Gotland, i Bohuslän och Skåne.

Håleggad yxa är en yxa med konkavt eggparti, som ett nutida håljärn. Yxor med hålegg kan vara av olika typ och förekomma under olika perioder. Troligen användes yxorna för träarbete bland annat som ett håljärn eller stämjärn.

Skafthålsyxor

Skafthålsyxorna tillverkades av olika stenarter, dock inte flinta, och var snarare lyxvapen eller ceremoniella föremål. Exempel på sådana är de båtyxor som användes av stridsyxekulturerna i Europa cirka 3200-1800 f.Kr. (se mer om stridsyxekulturen nedan).

Mångkantsyxa är en slags stridsyxa som tillhör den yngre stenåldern och kan dateras till tiden runt 3000-3400 f.Kr. Är vanligen av grönsten eller andra mer exklusiva bergarter och är försedd med skafthål, samt ofta olika typer av utmärkande särdrag, såsom utsvängd egg, välvd nackknopp, vinklad yxkropp, ränna och ås. De är bultade och har sedan slipats över hela ytan. Mångkantsyxan ses som en kopia av de centraleuropeiska kopparyxorna, men även i dessa områden förekommer mångkantsyxor av liknande slag.

Dubbeleggad stridsyxa är en skafthålsyxa tiden runt 3400-2900 f.Kr. Den förekom främst runt Rügen i Tyskland och på Själland, samtidigt som stridsyxekulturen etablerades i omliggande områden. Yxan har en utsvängd egg som blev mycket framträdande hos de yngre typerna och fick då även ett utsvängt nackparti. De dubbeleggade yxorna är alltid utarbetade ur hårda och homogena bergarter som till exempel porfyrit och de är dessutom fint slipade.

Båtyxa, är en äldre benämning på den svensk-norska stridsyxekulturens skafthålsyxa, som numera normalt kallas stridsyxa. De senaste åren har stridsyxans syfte som vapen ifrågasatts, bland annat för att skafthålen ibland är för små för att kunna fästas på ett tillräckligt starkt skaft. Alternativt kan den ha tjänat ett ceremoniellt syfte och som identitetsmarkör för det övre skiktet i samhället. Liknande yxor förekom inom ett stort område av nordöstra Europa, men i detalj finns det tydliga skillnader mellan olika kulturområden.

Skafthålslösa yxor & Skafthålsyxor

Die ältesten Äxte

Die Steinzeit ist die Periode in der Menschheitsgeschichte, in der die Menschen mit der Werkzeugherstellung begannen. Der Name Steinzeit leitet sich davon ab, dass die meisten Schneidwerkzeuge dieser Zeit aus Stein gefertigt wurden. Die Steinzeit umfasst:

Die Altsteinzeit(Jägersteinzeit), in der der Mensch von Jagd und Fischfang lebte. Zu dieser Zeit begannen die Menschen damit, die ersten Steinwerkzeuge zu fertigen. Dieser Zeitraum setzte vor etwa 2,5 Mio. Jahren ein und erstreckte sich etwa bis zum Ende der letzten Eiszeit vor etwa 10000 bis 11000 Jahren. Darauf folgte

Die Jungsteinzeit(Bauernsteinzeit), in der sich der Mensch hauptsächlich der Landwirtschaft widmete. Hin und wieder wird auch von einer „Kupfersteinzeit“ gesprochen, die sich kurz vor dem Einzug der Bronzezeit etablierte.

Die Axt zählt zu den ältesten Werkzeugen des Menschen. Die ältesten Äxte waren sogenannte Handbeile.

Die Handbeile war ein birnenförmiges, grob behauenes Steinwerkzeug, das über eine gleichmäßige und sich verjüngende Spitze sowie einen breiten Griff verfügt. Vermutlich wurde der Faustkeil auf vielfältige Weise eingesetzt: Angefangen vom Zerlegen von Tieren bis hin zum Ausgraben von Wurzelknollen.

Nach und nach fand der Abschlag auch als Messer, Schaber und Pfeilspitze Verwendung.

Als die Axt später mit einem Schaft versehen wurde, bildeten sich verschiedene Axtarten heraus, die sich in zwei Hauptgruppen unterteilen lassen: Äxteohne Schaftlochund Äxtemit Schaftloch.

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Die Handbeile bzw. Faustkeile, verfügten über keinen Schaft. Sie wurden bereits vom Homo ergaster vor 1,6 Mio. Jahren eingesetzt.

Mit Homo ergaster werden Fossilien von Menschen der Gattung Homo bezeichnet, die vor 1,9 bis 1,4 Mio. Jahren im östlichen und südlichen Afrika lebten.

Der Artname ergaster stammt aus dem Griechischen und bedeutet so viel wie „Arbeiter“. Diese Bezeichnung leitet sich davon ab, dass unweit von Skelettfunden dieser Gruppe Werkzeuge wie Steinäxte und Steinbeile gefunden wurden. 

Äxte ohne Schaftloch

Äxte ohne Schaftlochwurden vorwiegend aus Feuerstein, Grünstein oder Schiefer gefertigt.

Bei der Kernaxthandelt es sich um eine grobe, ungeschliffene Feuersteinaxt (Flintaxt) mit spitzem Nacken und häufig mit der größten Breite an der Schneide. Die Kernaxt war vor allem in der Altsteinzeit verbreitet.

Das Scheibenbeilwurde aus starkem Abschlag gefertigt, dessen Schneide für die breite Axtschneide genutzt wurde. Verschleißanalysen zeigen, dass Scheibenbeile vorwiegend beim Gerben und nicht für Holzarbeiten sowie andere Aufgaben verwendet wurden.

Bei der Lihults-Axt(norwegisch: Nøstvet-Axt) handelt es sich um eine grob bearbeite Axt aus Grünstein. Die Schneide ist geschliffen und am Nacken sind Schlagspuren zu finden. Sie ist charakteristisch für das heutige Westschweden sowie Südnorwegen und wurde vor allem in der späteren Altsteinzeit in der Region um den Oslofjord verwendet.

 Diese schmalnackige Axtwurde herkömmlicherweise aus Feuerstein (Flint) gefertigt. Einzelne Exemplare aus anderen Gesteinsarten kommen sowohl in feuersteinreichen als auch feuersteinarmen Gegenden vor. Sie wird häufig als Arbeitsaxt angesehen. Schätzungen zufolge stammt sie aus der Zeit von 3700 bis 3200 v. Chr. Ältere Typen sind in der Regel länger und breiter. Sie verfügen zudem über einen schmaleren Nacken als die spätere breitnackige Axt. Die schmalnackige Axt wurde als effektives Werkzeug für Waldarbeiten verwendet und dabei sehr wahrscheinlich zur Entrindung eingesetzt.

Beim Walzenbeilhandelt es sich um ein Beil aus Grünstein mit ovalem oder rundem Profil. Nur die Schneide ist geschliffen. Die Formgebung des Rests erfolgte durch feines Picken. Das Walzenbeil war in der Altsteinzeit, aber auch in großer Zahl für die ältere Periode der Jungsteinzeit typisch. Besonders verbreitet war es im heutigen Mittelschweden und im südlichen Bereich Nordschwedens. Ebenfalls häufig ist es in den heutigen schwedischen Regionen östliches Småland, Gotland, Bohuslän und Skåne zu finden.

Bei der hohlschneidigen Axtläuft die Schneide konkav zu und erinnert somit an die derzeit verwendeten Lochbeitel. Hohlschneidige Äxte kommen in verschiedenen Arten vor und sind für unterschiedliche Zeiträume typisch. Sehr wahrscheinlich wurden sie für Holzarbeiten eingesetzt, z.B. als Lochbeitel oder Stemmeisen.

Schaftlochäxte

Schaftlochäxtewurden aus verschiedenen Gesteinen gefertigt, nicht aber aus Feuerstein. Sie sind eher Luxuswaffen und zeremoniellen Gegenstände zuzurechnen. Beispiele hierfür sind die so genannten Bootäxte, die von den Streitaxtkulturen in Europa (3200 bis 1800 v. Chr.) verwendet wurden. (Weitere Informationen zur Streitaxtkultur finden Sie im Folgenden.)

 Bei der Vielkantaxt(Knaufhammeraxt) handelt es sich um eine Art Streitaxt aus der Jungsteinzeit. Sie lässt sich auf die Zeit um 3000 bis 3400 v. Chr. datieren. Sie ist gewöhnlich aus Grünstein oder anderen exklusiveren Steinarten gefertigt und verfügt über ein Schaftloch. Sie zeichnet sich durch verschiedene Unterscheidungsmerkmale aus, wie z.B. ausgestellte Schneide, gewölbter Nackenknauf, angewinkelter Axtkörper, Rinne und Erhebung. Ihre Formgebung erfolgte durch Picken. Anschließend wurde die gesamte Oberfläche geschliffen. Die Vielkantaxt gilt als Kopie der mitteleuropäischen Kupferäxte. Doch auch in diesen Gegenden sind Vielkantäxte vergleichbaren Typs anzutreffen.

 Bei der Doppelstreitaxthandelt es sich um eine Schaftlochaxt aus der Zeit um 3400 bis 2900 v. Chr. Sie war vor allem auf der Insel Rügen im heutigen Deutschland und auf der heute dänischen Insel Seeland verbreitet, als sich in den angrenzenden Regionen die Streitaxtkultur etablierte. Die Axt zeichnet sich durch eine ausgestellte Schneide aus, die insbesondere bei den jüngeren Typen besonders hervortritt. Sie weist daher bei diesen einen besonders ausgestellten Nackenbereich auf. Doppeläxte wurden stets aus harten und homogenen Gesteinen wie Porphyr herausgearbeitet und sind fein geschliffen.

 Bootaxt, so lautet der ältere Terminus für die Schaftlochaxt der schwedisch-norwegischem Streitaxtkultur. Sie wird heute in der Regel als Streitaxt bezeichnet. In den letzten Jahren wurde die Verwendung der Streitaxt als Waffe zunehmend in Frage gestellt. So sind u.a. die Schaftlöcher viel zu klein, um auf einem ausreichend großen Schaft befestigt zu werden. Sie kann auch zeremoniellen Zwecken oder als Identitätsmerkmal der oberen Gesellschaftsschicht gedient haben. Ähnliche Äxte wurden in einem großen Gebiet im nordöstlichen Europa aufgefunden, wobei sich jedoch in den Details in den verschiedenen Kulturräumen deutliche Unterschiede zeigen.

Äxte ohne Schaftloch und Schaftlochäxte

The oldest axes

The Stone Age is the period in human history that marks the advent of tool production. The name comes from the fact that most of the period’s cutting tools are made from stone. The Stone Age can be subdivided into:

The Early Stone Age, when humans lived by hunting and fishing, which spans the time from the first production of stone tools around 2.5 million years ago to the end of the last Ice Age around 10,000–11,000 years ago – and

The Late Stone Age, which covers the period when farming became the main means of subsistence. Sometimes there is reference to a “Copper Age” as the transition period from Stone Age to Bronze Age.

The axe is one of the oldest tools used by mankind. The oldest axes was known as hand axes.

The hand axe was a pear-shaped and roughly chipped stone tool brought to an even point, with a broad handle. The hand axe was probably used for many different tasks, everything from butchering animals to digging up tubers.

Gradually, the design was refined to include knives, scrapers and arrowheads, amongst other things.

When, much later, the axe was given a wooden handle, several different types of axes were developed, which may be divided into two main groups: Non-shaft-hole axes and shaft-hole axes.

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Hand axes had no shaft and were used by Homo ergaster as far back as 1.6 million years ago.

Homo ergaster is the name used for fossils of humans of the Homo genus who lived in Eastern and Southern Africa between 1.9 and 1.4 million years ago.

The species name ergaster comes from the Greek word for worker and was chosen after the discovery of several tools, such as stone axes and cutters, close to skeletal remains from this group.

Non-shaft-hole axes

As the name suggests, the non-shaft-hole axes had no hole for the handle and were generally made from flint, greenstone or slate.

 

  • The core axe is a roughly hewn, unpolished flint axe with a pointed butt and the widest part often towards the cutting edge. The core axe appeared during the Early Stone Age.
  • The flake axe is a type of axe made from a large flake chipped from a core, whose edge is used for the broad edge of the axe. Use wear analysis shows that the flake axe was probably used for preparing skins, rather than woodwork or other tasks.  
  • The Lihult axe (Norwegian Nøstvet axe) is a roughly hewn greenstone axe. The edge is polished and the butt bears signs of hammering. Characteristic of Western Sweden, Southern Norway and particularly the Oslofjord during the latter part of the Early Stone Age.
  • The thin-butted axe is usually made from flint, but some versions in other stone occur in both flint-rich and flint-poor areas. They tend to be seen as a working axe, and originate from roughly 3700–3200 BC. The older types are generally longer and broader and have a thinner butt than the later thick-butted axe. The thin-butted axe was good for forest clearing, probably in the context of ring-barking.
  • The round stone axe is a greenstone axe with an oval or rounded profile. Only the edge is polished, the rest of the axe is often finely hammered. The round stone axe belongs to the Early Stone Age, but also occurs in large numbers during the early part of the Late Stone Age. It was particularly common in Central Sweden and the lower parts of Northern Sweden. It also occurs in eastern Småland, Bohuslän and Skåne, and on Gotland.
  • The hollow-edged axe has a concave blade, like a modern gouge. Axes with a hollow edge may be of different types and occur during different periods. These axes were probably used for woodwork, like a gouge or chisel for example.

The shaft-hole axes

The shaft-hole axes were made using various stones, although not flint, and were more likely to be status weapons or ceremonial objects. Examples of these include the boat axes used in the Battle Axe cultures of Europe in around 3200–1800 BC (read more about the Battle Axe culture below).

 

  • The polygonal axe is a kind of battle axe that belongs to the Late Stone Age and dates to around 3000–3400 BC. It is usually made from greenstone or some other exclusive stone, and is fitted with a shaft hole. It also tends to have various special features, such as a flared edge, an arched butt, an angled body, grooves and ridges. The features are hammered out and then polished across the whole surface. The polygonal axe is seen as a copy of the Central European copper axes, but even in these areas, polygonal axes of various kinds have been found.
  • The double-headed battle axe is a shaft-hole axe from around 3400–2900 BC. It occurred mainly around Rügen in Germany and on Zealand in Denmark, as the Battle Axe culture established itself in the surrounding areas. The axe has a flared edge that became very prominent among the later types, which also gained a flared butt. The double-edged axes were always made from hard and homogeneous stones such as porphyry, and they were also finely polished.
  • The boat axe is an old name for the shaft-hole axe of the Swedish-Norwegian Battle Axe culture that is now simply referred to as the battle axe. In recent years, the purpose of the battle axe as a weapon has been called into question, not least because the shaft hole is sometimes so small that it could not be attached to a sufficiently strong handle. It may then have served a ceremonial purpose and as an identity marker for the upper echelons of society. Similar axes appeared across a large swathe of North-Eastern Europe, although there are clear differences in the details between different cultural areas.

Haftless axes & Hafted axes

The Battle Axe culture

The Battle Axe culture (c. 3200–1800 BC), also referred to as the Boat Axe culture in older literature, is a relatively uniform archaeological culture that occurs in an area of Southern Sweden-Norway that stretches from Bornholm and Skåne in the south up to Uppland in the north and along the Norwegian coast up to Central Norway.

It is a regional variant of the Corded Ware culture that occurred in North-Eastern Europe during the third century BC. In addition to the battle axes that gave the culture its name and the typical ceramic pots, there are a number of other objects that are characteristic of the culture. These include flint adzes and chisels, which are commonly hollow-edged.

Axes of the Bronze Age

During the Bronze Age (2000 BC – 500 AD for Northern Europe), stone axes began giving way to axes with a head made of copper and bronze. Initially, these were often pure copies of stone axes. The bronze axe head was cast in moulds, allowing the design to be copied and mass produced.

One type of Bronze Age axe is the Socketed Axe, or Celt, a wedge-shaped axe head with no shaft hole. The handle is instead fixed into a socket at the butt end. Since the axe is made hollow and the handle is inserted into the head, a perfectly functional working axe can be made with minimal materials. The older socketed axes were quite long, but they were gradually replaced with smaller types, where a flared edge compensated for the smaller size.

The Palstave is another type of bronze axe that occurred for a short period during the Early Bronze Age (1500 BC – 1000 BC). The characteristic of this axe type is the narrow butt, which inserts into a split wooden handle. The blade is often flared and the sides may be decorated with spiral or angular patterns. The Palstave was mounted in the split end of a wooden handle and then tied in place with leather straps.

In Scandinavia axes in copper and bronze have been found in the Early Bronze Age (c. 2000 BC).

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At the beginning of the Iron Age (from c. 500 BC in Northern Europe) the old axe types, such as the socketed axe, were simply reproduced in iron, but the possibilities of the new material led the appearance of the axes to change gradually. The non-shaft-hole axes disappeared and were replaced by axes with a hole for a handle. The axe heads also became larger, with broader blades.

In Scandinavia it has been found iron axes from the first century AD.

Streitaxtkultur

Die Streitaxtkultur (ca. 3200 bis 1800 v. Chr.), in der älteren Literatur auch Bootaxtkultur genannt, bezeichnet eine ziemlich einheitliche archäologische Kultur in den südlichen Teilen des heutigen Schwedens und Norwegens, die sich vom dänischen Bornholm und schwedischen Skåne im Süden bis nach Uppland im Norden Schwedens und entlang der norwegischen Küste bis Trøndelag erstreckt.

Sie gilt als regionale Variante der sogenannten Schnurkeramikkultur („Corded Ware Culture“), die im dritten Jahrtausend v. Chr. in Nordosteuropa herrschte. Neben den Streitäxten, die dieser Kultur ihren Namen verliehen, und den typischen Keramikgefäßen, gibt es eine Reihe weiterer Objekte, die diese Kultur prägen. Dazu zählen die querschneidigen Feuersteinäxte und Feuersteinmeißel, die zudem häufig hohlschneidig sind.

Äxte während der Bronzezeit

In der Bronzezeit (2000 bis 500 v.Chr. in Nordeuropa) wurden die Steinäxte zunehmend von Äxten mit Köpfen aus Kupfer oder Bronze verdrängt. Zunächst waren diese Äxte reine Nachbildungen von Steinäxten. Axtköpfe aus Bronze wurden in Formen gegossen. Demzufolge ließ sich das Axtmodell kopieren und massenhaft fertigen.

Ein Bronzezeitaxttyp war das so genannte Tüllenbeil (Tüllenaxt). Der keilförmige Axtkopf besaß kein Schaftloch. Der Schaft wurde hinten am Kopf in einer so genannten „Tülle“ befestigt. Bei der Fertigung dieser funktionstüchtigen Arbeitsaxt wurde nur wenig Material verbraucht. Das Beil war innen hohl und der Schaft wurde direkt ins Blatt gesteckt. Die älteren Tüllenbeile waren ziemlich lang. Sie wurden später durch kürzere Typen ersetzt, bei denen die ausgestellte Schneide die kleinere Größe kompensierte.

Beim Absatzbeilhandelt es sich um einen anderen Typ einer Bronzeaxt, der während einer kurzen Zeitspanne in der Bronzezeit (1500 bis 1000 v. Chr.) aufkam. Typisch für diese Axt ist der sich verjüngende Nacken, der in einem geteilten Holzschaft befestigt ist. Die Schneide ist häufig ausgestellt. Die Seitenränder können mit Spiral- oder Winkelmustern verziert sein. Das Absatzbeil wurde in einen Holzschaft eingesetzt, dessen Enden in zwei Teile gespalten waren. Die Befestigung erfolgte mit Lederstreifen.

In Skandinavien sind Kupfer- und Bronzeäxte aus der frühen Bronzezeit (ca. 2000 v. Chr.) bekannt.

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In der Eisenzeit (ab ca. 500 v. Chr. in Nordeuropa) wurden zunächst alte Axttypen wie z.B. das Tüllenbeil aus Eisen nachgebildet. Dieses neue Material begann dann mit seinen neuen Möglichkeiten das Erscheinungsbild der neuen Äxte schrittweise zu verändern. Äxte ohne Schaftloch (Beile) wurden durch Äxte mit Schaftloch ersetzt. Die Axtköpfe vergrößerten sich und die Schneiden verbreiterten sich.

In Skandinavien sind Eisenäxte aus dem 1. Jh. n. Chr. bekannt.

Stridsyxekulturen

Stridsyxekulturen (3200-1800 f.Kr), även känt som båtyxkulturen i den äldre litteraturen, betecknar en relativt enhetlig arkeologisk kultur som förekommer i ett område av södra Sverige-Norge som sträcker sig från Bornholm och Skåne i söder till Uppland i norr och längs den norska kusten upp till Tröndelag.

Den är en regional variant av så kallad Snörkeramisk kultur (Corded Ware culture) som förekommer i nordöstra Europa under tredje årtusendet före Kristus. Förutom de stridsyxor som namngivit kulturen och de typiska keramikkärlen, finns en rad föremål som är typiska för kulturen. Hit hör de tväreggade flintyxorna och flintmejslarna, som relativt ofta dessutom är håleggade.

Yxor under bronsåldern

Under bronsåldern (2000 f.Kr.-500 f.Kr. för Norra Europa) började stenyxorna trängas undan av yxor med huvuden tillverkade av koppar och brons. Till att börja med var dessa ofta rena avbildningar av stenyxor. Yxhuvuden i brons göts i formar och en yxmodell kunde därför kopieras och massproduceras.

En typ av bronsåldersyxa var holkyxan eller hålcelt, ett kilformigt yxhuvud utan skafthål, där skaftet fästes bak i huvudet i en så kallad “holk”. Genom att yxan gjordes ihålig och skaftet istället stacks in i bladet, erhölls en funktionsduglig arbetsyxa med minimal materialåtgång. De äldre holkyxorna var ganska långa, men de kom efter hand att ersättas med mindre typer, där en utsvängd egg kompenserade den mindre storleken.

Avsatsyxa är en annan typ av bronsyxa som förekom under en kort period under äldre bronsålder (1500 f.Kr.-1000 f.Kr.). Karakteristiskt för yxtypen är den avtunnade nacken vilken ska fästas i ett delat träskaft. Eggen är ofta utsvängd och sidokanterna kan vara ornerade med spiral- eller vinkelmönster. Avsatsyxan skaftades i ett träskaft, där änden klövs i två delar och surrades fast med skinnremsor.

I Skandinavien har man funnit yxor i koppar och brons från tidig bronsålder (cirka 2000 f.Kr.)

Holkyxan

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På väg ner från en alptopp 1991 hittade två vandrare ett fruset lik. Först trodde man att det var resterna av en oförsiktig alpinist, men med tiden stod det klart att man funnit en stenåldersman som mördats för mer än fem tusen år sedan. Mannen fick namnet Ötzi efter fyndplatsen Ötztalalperna.

Ötzis kopparyxa är unik eftersom det är den enda helt bevarade förhistoriska yxan i världen. Först tolkade man kopparyxan som ett tecken på rang, en statussymbol som tillhörde en viss krigare eller den härskande klassen. Men märken efter slitage på yxan och även experiment med en rekonstruerad kopparyxa visade att Ötzis yxa kunde fälla träd.

Yxor under Järnåldern

Under järnåldern (från ca 500 f.kr. i norra Europa) efterbildades först de gamla yxtyperna, till exempel holkyxan, i järn men det nya materialets möjligheter gjorde att utseendet på yxorna gradvis förändrades. De skafthålslösa yxorna försvann och ersattes av yxor med hål för skaftet. Yxhuvudena blir allt större med bredare egg.

I Skandinavien har man funnit järnyxor från första århundradet e.Kr.

Stridsyxekulturen

Stridsyxekulturen (3200-1800 f.Kr), även känt som båtyxkulturen i den äldre litteraturen, betecknar en relativt enhetlig arkeologisk kultur som förekommer i ett område av södra Sverige-Norge som sträcker sig från Bornholm och Skåne i söder till Uppland i norr och längs den norska kusten upp till Tröndelag.

Den är en regional variant av så kallad Snörkeramisk kultur (Corded Ware culture) som förekommer i nordöstra Europa under tredje årtusendet före Kristus. Förutom de stridsyxor som namngivit kulturen och de typiska keramikkärlen, finns en rad föremål som är typiska för kulturen. Hit hör de tväreggade flintyxorna och flintmejslarna, som relativt ofta dessutom är håleggade.

Yxor under bronsåldern

Under bronsåldern (2000 f.Kr.-500 f.Kr. för Norra Europa) började stenyxorna trängas undan av yxor med huvuden tillverkade av koppar och brons. Till att börja med var dessa ofta rena avbildningar av stenyxor. Yxhuvuden i brons göts i formar och en yxmodell kunde därför kopieras och massproduceras.

En typ av bronsåldersyxa var holkyxan eller hålcelt, ett kilformigt yxhuvud utan skafthål, där skaftet fästes bak i huvudet i en så kallad “holk”. Genom att yxan gjordes ihålig och skaftet istället stacks in i bladet, erhölls en funktionsduglig arbetsyxa med minimal materialåtgång. De äldre holkyxorna var ganska långa, men de kom efter hand att ersättas med mindre typer, där en utsvängd egg kompenserade den mindre storleken.

Avsatsyxa är en annan typ av bronsyxa som förekom under en kort period under äldre bronsålder (1500 f.Kr.-1000 f.Kr.). Karakteristiskt för yxtypen är den avtunnade nacken vilken ska fästas i ett delat träskaft. Eggen är ofta utsvängd och sidokanterna kan vara ornerade med spiral- eller vinkelmönster. Avsatsyxan skaftades i ett träskaft, där änden klövs i två delar och surrades fast med skinnremsor.

I Skandinavien har man funnit yxor i koppar och brons från tidig bronsålder (cirka 2000 f.Kr.)

Holkyxan

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På väg ner från en alptopp 1991 hittade två vandrare ett fruset lik. Först trodde man att det var resterna av en oförsiktig alpinist, men med tiden stod det klart att man funnit en stenåldersman som mördats för mer än fem tusen år sedan. Mannen fick namnet Ötzi efter fyndplatsen Ötztalalperna.

Ötzis kopparyxa är unik eftersom det är den enda helt bevarade förhistoriska yxan i världen. Först tolkade man kopparyxan som ett tecken på rang, en statussymbol som tillhörde en viss krigare eller den härskande klassen. Men märken efter slitage på yxan och även experiment med en rekonstruerad kopparyxa visade att Ötzis yxa kunde fälla träd.

Yxor under Järnåldern

Under järnåldern (från ca 500 f.kr. i norra Europa) efterbildades först de gamla yxtyperna, till exempel holkyxan, i järn men det nya materialets möjligheter gjorde att utseendet på yxorna gradvis förändrades. De skafthålslösa yxorna försvann och ersattes av yxor med hål för skaftet. Yxhuvudena blir allt större med bredare egg.

I Skandinavien har man funnit järnyxor från första århundradet e.Kr.

The Battle Axe culture

The Battle Axe culture (c. 3200–1800 BC), also referred to as the Boat Axe culture in older literature, is a relatively uniform archaeological culture that occurs in an area of Southern Sweden-Norway that stretches from Bornholm and Skåne in the south up to Uppland in the north and along the Norwegian coast up to Central Norway.

It is a regional variant of the Corded Ware culture that occurred in North-Eastern Europe during the third century BC. In addition to the battle axes that gave the culture its name and the typical ceramic pots, there are a number of other objects that are characteristic of the culture. These include flint adzes and chisels, which are commonly hollow-edged.

Axes of the Bronze Age

During the Bronze Age (2000 BC – 500 AD for Northern Europe), stone axes began giving way to axes with a head made of copper and bronze. Initially, these were often pure copies of stone axes. The bronze axe head was cast in moulds, allowing the design to be copied and mass produced.

One type of Bronze Age axe is the Socketed Axe, or Celt, a wedge-shaped axe head with no shaft hole. The handle is instead fixed into a socket at the butt end. Since the axe is made hollow and the handle is inserted into the head, a perfectly functional working axe can be made with minimal materials. The older socketed axes were quite long, but they were gradually replaced with smaller types, where a flared edge compensated for the smaller size.

The Palstave is another type of bronze axe that occurred for a short period during the Early Bronze Age (1500 BC – 1000 BC). The characteristic of this axe type is the narrow butt, which inserts into a split wooden handle. The blade is often flared and the sides may be decorated with spiral or angular patterns. The Palstave was mounted in the split end of a wooden handle and then tied in place with leather straps.

In Scandinavia axes in copper and bronze have been found in the Early Bronze Age (c. 2000 BC).

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At the beginning of the Iron Age (from c. 500 BC in Northern Europe) the old axe types, such as the socketed axe, were simply reproduced in iron, but the possibilities of the new material led the appearance of the axes to change gradually. The non-shaft-hole axes disappeared and were replaced by axes with a hole for a handle. The axe heads also became larger, with broader blades.

In Scandinavia it has been found iron axes from the first century AD.

The Battle Axe culture

The Battle Axe culture (c. 3200–1800 BC), also referred to as the Boat Axe culture in older literature, is a relatively uniform archaeological culture that occurs in an area of Southern Sweden-Norway that stretches from Bornholm and Skåne in the south up to Uppland in the north and along the Norwegian coast up to Central Norway.

It is a regional variant of the Corded Ware culture that occurred in North-Eastern Europe during the third century BC. In addition to the battle axes that gave the culture its name and the typical ceramic pots, there are a number of other objects that are characteristic of the culture. These include flint adzes and chisels, which are commonly hollow-edged.

Axes of the Bronze Age

During the Bronze Age (2000 BC – 500 AD for Northern Europe), stone axes began giving way to axes with a head made of copper and bronze. Initially, these were often pure copies of stone axes. The bronze axe head was cast in moulds, allowing the design to be copied and mass produced.

One type of Bronze Age axe is the Socketed Axe, or Celt, a wedge-shaped axe head with no shaft hole. The handle is instead fixed into a socket at the butt end. Since the axe is made hollow and the handle is inserted into the head, a perfectly functional working axe can be made with minimal materials. The older socketed axes were quite long, but they were gradually replaced with smaller types, where a flared edge compensated for the smaller size.

The Palstave is another type of bronze axe that occurred for a short period during the Early Bronze Age (1500 BC – 1000 BC). The characteristic of this axe type is the narrow butt, which inserts into a split wooden handle. The blade is often flared and the sides may be decorated with spiral or angular patterns. The Palstave was mounted in the split end of a wooden handle and then tied in place with leather straps.

In Scandinavia axes in copper and bronze have been found in the Early Bronze Age (c. 2000 BC).

Bild-11-e1550669233277.jpg
Bild-12-arighttop.jpg
Bild-12b-arightcenter.jpg
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At the beginning of the Iron Age (from c. 500 BC in Northern Europe) the old axe types, such as the socketed axe, were simply reproduced in iron, but the possibilities of the new material led the appearance of the axes to change gradually. The non-shaft-hole axes disappeared and were replaced by axes with a hole for a handle. The axe heads also became larger, with broader blades.

In Scandinavia it has been found iron axes from the first century AD.

The Battle Axe culture

The Battle Axe culture (c. 3200–1800 BC), also referred to as the Boat Axe culture in older literature, is a relatively uniform archaeological culture that occurs in an area of Southern Sweden-Norway that stretches from Bornholm and Skåne in the south up to Uppland in the north and along the Norwegian coast up to Central Norway.

It is a regional variant of the Corded Ware culture that occurred in North-Eastern Europe during the third century BC. In addition to the battle axes that gave the culture its name and the typical ceramic pots, there are a number of other objects that are characteristic of the culture. These include flint adzes and chisels, which are commonly hollow-edged.

Axes of the Bronze Age

During the Bronze Age (2000 BC – 500 AD for Northern Europe), stone axes began giving way to axes with a head made of copper and bronze. Initially, these were often pure copies of stone axes. The bronze axe head was cast in moulds, allowing the design to be copied and mass produced.

One type of Bronze Age axe is the Socketed Axe, or Celt, a wedge-shaped axe head with no shaft hole. The handle is instead fixed into a socket at the butt end. Since the axe is made hollow and the handle is inserted into the head, a perfectly functional working axe can be made with minimal materials. The older socketed axes were quite long, but they were gradually replaced with smaller types, where a flared edge compensated for the smaller size.

The Palstave is another type of bronze axe that occurred for a short period during the Early Bronze Age (1500 BC – 1000 BC). The characteristic of this axe type is the narrow butt, which inserts into a split wooden handle. The blade is often flared and the sides may be decorated with spiral or angular patterns. The Palstave was mounted in the split end of a wooden handle and then tied in place with leather straps.

In Scandinavia axes in copper and bronze have been found in the Early Bronze Age (c. 2000 BC).

Bild-11-e1550669233277.jpg
Bild-12-arighttop.jpg
Bild-12b-arightcenter.jpg
Bild-13b-arightcenter.jpg

At the beginning of the Iron Age (from c. 500 BC in Northern Europe) the old axe types, such as the socketed axe, were simply reproduced in iron, but the possibilities of the new material led the appearance of the axes to change gradually. The non-shaft-hole axes disappeared and were replaced by axes with a hole for a handle. The axe heads also became larger, with broader blades.

In Scandinavia it has been found iron axes from the first century AD.

The Battle Axe culture

The Battle Axe culture (c. 3200–1800 BC), also referred to as the Boat Axe culture in older literature, is a relatively uniform archaeological culture that occurs in an area of Southern Sweden-Norway that stretches from Bornholm and Skåne in the south up to Uppland in the north and along the Norwegian coast up to Central Norway.

It is a regional variant of the Corded Ware culture that occurred in North-Eastern Europe during the third century BC. In addition to the battle axes that gave the culture its name and the typical ceramic pots, there are a number of other objects that are characteristic of the culture. These include flint adzes and chisels, which are commonly hollow-edged.

Axes of the Bronze Age

During the Bronze Age (2000 BC – 500 AD for Northern Europe), stone axes began giving way to axes with a head made of copper and bronze. Initially, these were often pure copies of stone axes. The bronze axe head was cast in moulds, allowing the design to be copied and mass produced.

One type of Bronze Age axe is the Socketed Axe, or Celt, a wedge-shaped axe head with no shaft hole. The handle is instead fixed into a socket at the butt end. Since the axe is made hollow and the handle is inserted into the head, a perfectly functional working axe can be made with minimal materials. The older socketed axes were quite long, but they were gradually replaced with smaller types, where a flared edge compensated for the smaller size.

The Palstave is another type of bronze axe that occurred for a short period during the Early Bronze Age (1500 BC – 1000 BC). The characteristic of this axe type is the narrow butt, which inserts into a split wooden handle. The blade is often flared and the sides may be decorated with spiral or angular patterns. The Palstave was mounted in the split end of a wooden handle and then tied in place with leather straps.

In Scandinavia axes in copper and bronze have been found in the Early Bronze Age (c. 2000 BC).

Bild-11-e1550669233277.jpg
Bild-12-arighttop.jpg
Bild-12b-arightcenter.jpg
Bild-13b-arightcenter.jpg

At the beginning of the Iron Age (from c. 500 BC in Northern Europe) the old axe types, such as the socketed axe, were simply reproduced in iron, but the possibilities of the new material led the appearance of the axes to change gradually. The non-shaft-hole axes disappeared and were replaced by axes with a hole for a handle. The axe heads also became larger, with broader blades.

In Scandinavia it has been found iron axes from the first century AD.

Axes as weapons

Along with the club and spear, the axe is one of mankind’s oldest close combat weapons. The first axes used as weapons were probably the same axes that were used as tools, since these were near at hand. However, the focus shifted to developing specific axes for fighting, although “ordinary” axes continued being used as weapons up until recent times. An axe produced with the specific intention of being used as a weapon in combat is called a battle axe. These were being made as far back as the Stone Age and Bronze Age.

An axe intended to be thrown as a projectile is called a Throwing axe. Throwing axes usually had a short handle. Such weapons were used by Teutonic tribes during the era of the Great Migration (400–500 AD), but also by the Franks. The Frankish throwing axes had thick but sharp axe heads and short handles. They were thrown at a distance of 10 or 12 paces from the enemy.

Excavations of Central European graves from the period 500–750 AD uncovered a special axe that has been named the Franziska. This axe was initially used by the Franks, before spreading to the Teutons, Burgundians, Lombards and finally the Goths.

The Franziska was probably used mostly as a hand weapon in close combat – it paid to keep a firm grip on your weapon at all times. It is unlikely that a warrior would throw away his prized weapon and then stand unarmed, although this is said to have happened when the Franks assaulted their enemies in Italy. However, conditions were very different when out hunting with the axe. It was much more difficult to get within arm’s length of a shy animal than an opponent in battle. An axe could, though, be thrown quickly and quietly from a distance with great precision. And if it did miss the target, on the hunt there was time to recover the axe without the threat of attack from an enemy.

The Franziska has an unusual shape and was clearly designed to be an effective throwing weapon. When correctly thrown, a Franziska rotates a number of times in the air before the axe blade hits its target. The axe will rotate once at a distance of 4–5 metres from the target, twice at a distance of 8–9 metres and three times at a distance of 12–13 metres.

Bild-15-aleftcenter.jpg

In Scandinavia, the Battle axe rose in popularity during the Viking Age (c. 800–1100 AD), when the axe became something of a weapon of choice. During this time, the Nordic smiths developed axes with longer handles and thinner blades, making the axe head extra light for use in battle.

This type of axe was very common at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, for example, as documented in the Bayeux tapestry.

During the Middle Ages and Renaissance (around the 11th–16th centuries), European armies often had two different types of battle axe: a small axe with a short handle, often carried on the belt, and a larger one with a longer handle. The knights often fought on foot, when it was common to use battle axes. It was also common to find axes where the butt ended in an iron spike and the hand was protected by an iron plate on the handle. During the 15th century, knights in Germany and France in particular used special battle axes that were intended to crush the opponent’s metal armour. These axes were heavier, with a shorter handle and a rather blunter edge.

In Central Europe, throwing axes made entirely of iron were used in the late Middle Ages. The handle was usually 25–30 centimetres long and ended in a point. The butt also had a sharp spike and the cutting edge was around 16 centimetres long. In addition to these, there have been many other models of throwing axe.

There were also large battle axes with a broad long head on a long handle. One example is the Bearded axe, which often had an elongated edge with a sabre-like curve called a beard. The lower part of the blade was fixed to the handle with a rivet. The handle was about 1.4 metres long. On some models, the front part of the axe blade was shaped into a hand guard. Bearded axes came in many varieties, with one or more points or hooks. The bearded axe is sometimes referred as the “half-moon”. Other names were “bardiche” and “halberd”. These axes were common in Western and Central Europe during parts of the 14th century, before becoming more widely used, particularly in Sweden and Eastern Europe.

In Europe, the axe declined in popularity as the sword was developed, but it remained a cheap and easily accessible weapon for ordinary people such as peasants at times of unrest and for self-defence against bandits.

The executioner’s broad axe

In Europe, the broad axe gradually began to replace the sword as the tool of choice for beheadings during the latter part of the Middle Ages.

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In Sweden, beheading by broad axe was a method of execution used in the 18th and 19th centuries. The final execution with a broad axe in Sweden was that of murderer John Filip Nordlund. It was carried out by national executioner Albert Gustaf Dahlman at Västerås County Jail on 10 December 1900.

The broad axe was then retired in favour of the guillotine for executions in Sweden, although this method was only used once, in 1910, when the last execution took place in Sweden.

The axe as a symbol

Alongside its practical applications, all through history the axe has had a symbolic meaning. As an early example, we have the aforementioned boat axes from the Stone Age. The axe was also a cult object in China, the Inca empire and ancient Greece and Rome.

The Swedish History Museum in Stockholm has a double-headed axe made from clay, overlaid in gold. A clay axe could not have been a tool, only a cult object – with the double-headed axe representing the circle of life. Like the crescent moon that waxed and waned, one can imagine that the two blades of the axe might symbolise birth and death in some form of related ritual.

The Minoan culture flourished in Knossos on the Greek island of Crete in around 2500 BC. Knossos was probably the biggest and most powerful of several centres in the eastern Mediterranean at that time. The enormous Labyrinth palace was home to the ruling dynasty, but also the hub of political and economic life in Knossos. Colourful religious ceremonies and ecstatic cult festivals took place here.

The word “labyrinth” comes from labrys, an ancient Cretan word for a double-headed axe. As the name of the palace, Labyrinth meant House of the Double Axe. Images of double-headed axes have been found carved into stone in Knossos. It is known that the double-headed axe played a major role in Minoan culture and was a symbol of power.

Excavations of the Knossos palace have uncovered a mural of a heavily armed woman who has a double-headed axe in each hand. The House of the Double Axe and the woman with the double-headed axes represented just a few of the symbols and depictions in Minoan society. Religion and ritual were an integrated part of general culture.

Double-headed axe with bull’s head (boukranion) from Mycenaean Greece.

In the Roman Empire, a lictor (a civil servant tasked with attending and guarding the magistrates of the empire) carried a bundle of rods, known as a fasces  with a decorative broad axe attached. The fasces symbolised the power to punish. The bundle of rods represented the power to flog and the broad axe the power to execute. Today the fasces can still be seen in the emblem of the Swedish and Norwegian police forces and in the French national coat of arms. Mussolini adopted the fasces as a symbol of his movement, which led to the name Fascism.

In the Nordic region, the battle axe became a symbol of power and rank during the Viking Age. The axes were ornately decorated as important status symbols. In Norway, the axe became one of St Olaf’s holy attributes.

The axe has also been used as a symbol in the military. The provost marshal, a former non-commissioned officer tasked with keeping order and carrying out punishments, wore a symbolic axe on his uniform. Sappers – military woodsmen – carried a large axe on parade as a symbol of their duty. This lives on in the Swedish army, for example, in the emblem of the engineering troops.

Axes as weapons

Along with the club and spear, the axe is one of mankind’s oldest close combat weapons. The first axes used as weapons were probably the same axes that were used as tools, since these were near at hand. However, the focus shifted to developing specific axes for fighting, although “ordinary” axes continued being used as weapons up until recent times. An axe produced with the specific intention of being used as a weapon in combat is called a battle axe. These were being made as far back as the Stone Age and Bronze Age.

An axe intended to be thrown as a projectile is called a Throwing axe. Throwing axes usually had a short handle. Such weapons were used by Teutonic tribes during the era of the Great Migration (400–500 AD), but also by the Franks. The Frankish throwing axes had thick but sharp axe heads and short handles. They were thrown at a distance of 10 or 12 paces from the enemy.

Excavations of Central European graves from the period 500–750 AD uncovered a special axe that has been named the Franziska. This axe was initially used by the Franks, before spreading to the Teutons, Burgundians, Lombards and finally the Goths.

The Franziska was probably used mostly as a hand weapon in close combat – it paid to keep a firm grip on your weapon at all times. It is unlikely that a warrior would throw away his prized weapon and then stand unarmed, although this is said to have happened when the Franks assaulted their enemies in Italy. However, conditions were very different when out hunting with the axe. It was much more difficult to get within arm’s length of a shy animal than an opponent in battle. An axe could, though, be thrown quickly and quietly from a distance with great precision. And if it did miss the target, on the hunt there was time to recover the axe without the threat of attack from an enemy.

The Franziska has an unusual shape and was clearly designed to be an effective throwing weapon. When correctly thrown, a Franziska rotates a number of times in the air before the axe blade hits its target. The axe will rotate once at a distance of 4–5 metres from the target, twice at a distance of 8–9 metres and three times at a distance of 12–13 metres.

Bild-15-aleftcenter.jpg

In Scandinavia, the Battle axe rose in popularity during the Viking Age (c. 800–1100 AD), when the axe became something of a weapon of choice. During this time, the Nordic smiths developed axes with longer handles and thinner blades, making the axe head extra light for use in battle.

This type of axe was very common at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, for example, as documented in the Bayeux tapestry.

During the Middle Ages and Renaissance (around the 11th–16th centuries), European armies often had two different types of battle axe: a small axe with a short handle, often carried on the belt, and a larger one with a longer handle. The knights often fought on foot, when it was common to use battle axes. It was also common to find axes where the butt ended in an iron spike and the hand was protected by an iron plate on the handle. During the 15th century, knights in Germany and France in particular used special battle axes that were intended to crush the opponent’s metal armour. These axes were heavier, with a shorter handle and a rather blunter edge.

In Central Europe, throwing axes made entirely of iron were used in the late Middle Ages. The handle was usually 25–30 centimetres long and ended in a point. The butt also had a sharp spike and the cutting edge was around 16 centimetres long. In addition to these, there have been many other models of throwing axe.

There were also large battle axes with a broad long head on a long handle. One example is the Bearded axe, which often had an elongated edge with a sabre-like curve called a beard. The lower part of the blade was fixed to the handle with a rivet. The handle was about 1.4 metres long. On some models, the front part of the axe blade was shaped into a hand guard. Bearded axes came in many varieties, with one or more points or hooks. The bearded axe is sometimes referred as the “half-moon”. Other names were “bardiche” and “halberd”. These axes were common in Western and Central Europe during parts of the 14th century, before becoming more widely used, particularly in Sweden and Eastern Europe.

In Europe, the axe declined in popularity as the sword was developed, but it remained a cheap and easily accessible weapon for ordinary people such as peasants at times of unrest and for self-defence against bandits.

The executioner’s broad axe

In Europe, the broad axe gradually began to replace the sword as the tool of choice for beheadings during the latter part of the Middle Ages.

Bild-17-aleftcenter.jpg

In Sweden, beheading by broad axe was a method of execution used in the 18th and 19th centuries. The final execution with a broad axe in Sweden was that of murderer John Filip Nordlund. It was carried out by national executioner Albert Gustaf Dahlman at Västerås County Jail on 10 December 1900.

The broad axe was then retired in favour of the guillotine for executions in Sweden, although this method was only used once, in 1910, when the last execution took place in Sweden.

The axe as a symbol

Alongside its practical applications, all through history the axe has had a symbolic meaning. As an early example, we have the aforementioned boat axes from the Stone Age. The axe was also a cult object in China, the Inca empire and ancient Greece and Rome.

The Swedish History Museum in Stockholm has a double-headed axe made from clay, overlaid in gold. A clay axe could not have been a tool, only a cult object – with the double-headed axe representing the circle of life. Like the crescent moon that waxed and waned, one can imagine that the two blades of the axe might symbolise birth and death in some form of related ritual.

The Minoan culture flourished in Knossos on the Greek island of Crete in around 2500 BC. Knossos was probably the biggest and most powerful of several centres in the eastern Mediterranean at that time. The enormous Labyrinth palace was home to the ruling dynasty, but also the hub of political and economic life in Knossos. Colourful religious ceremonies and ecstatic cult festivals took place here.

The word “labyrinth” comes from labrys, an ancient Cretan word for a double-headed axe. As the name of the palace, Labyrinth meant House of the Double Axe. Images of double-headed axes have been found carved into stone in Knossos. It is known that the double-headed axe played a major role in Minoan culture and was a symbol of power.

Excavations of the Knossos palace have uncovered a mural of a heavily armed woman who has a double-headed axe in each hand. The House of the Double Axe and the woman with the double-headed axes represented just a few of the symbols and depictions in Minoan society. Religion and ritual were an integrated part of general culture.

Double-headed axe with bull’s head (boukranion) from Mycenaean Greece.

In the Roman Empire, a lictor (a civil servant tasked with attending and guarding the magistrates of the empire) carried a bundle of rods, known as a fasces  with a decorative broad axe attached. The fasces symbolised the power to punish. The bundle of rods represented the power to flog and the broad axe the power to execute. Today the fasces can still be seen in the emblem of the Swedish and Norwegian police forces and in the French national coat of arms. Mussolini adopted the fasces as a symbol of his movement, which led to the name Fascism.

In the Nordic region, the battle axe became a symbol of power and rank during the Viking Age. The axes were ornately decorated as important status symbols. In Norway, the axe became one of St Olaf’s holy attributes.

The axe has also been used as a symbol in the military. The provost marshal, a former non-commissioned officer tasked with keeping order and carrying out punishments, wore a symbolic axe on his uniform. Sappers – military woodsmen – carried a large axe on parade as a symbol of their duty. This lives on in the Swedish army, for example, in the emblem of the engineering troops.

Axes as weapons

Along with the club and spear, the axe is one of mankind’s oldest close combat weapons. The first axes used as weapons were probably the same axes that were used as tools, since these were near at hand. However, the focus shifted to developing specific axes for fighting, although “ordinary” axes continued being used as weapons up until recent times. An axe produced with the specific intention of being used as a weapon in combat is called a battle axe. These were being made as far back as the Stone Age and Bronze Age.

An axe intended to be thrown as a projectile is called a Throwing axe. Throwing axes usually had a short handle. Such weapons were used by Teutonic tribes during the era of the Great Migration (400–500 AD), but also by the Franks. The Frankish throwing axes had thick but sharp axe heads and short handles. They were thrown at a distance of 10 or 12 paces from the enemy.

Excavations of Central European graves from the period 500–750 AD uncovered a special axe that has been named the Franziska. This axe was initially used by the Franks, before spreading to the Teutons, Burgundians, Lombards and finally the Goths.

The Franziska was probably used mostly as a hand weapon in close combat – it paid to keep a firm grip on your weapon at all times. It is unlikely that a warrior would throw away his prized weapon and then stand unarmed, although this is said to have happened when the Franks assaulted their enemies in Italy. However, conditions were very different when out hunting with the axe. It was much more difficult to get within arm’s length of a shy animal than an opponent in battle. An axe could, though, be thrown quickly and quietly from a distance with great precision. And if it did miss the target, on the hunt there was time to recover the axe without the threat of attack from an enemy.

The Franziska has an unusual shape and was clearly designed to be an effective throwing weapon. When correctly thrown, a Franziska rotates a number of times in the air before the axe blade hits its target. The axe will rotate once at a distance of 4–5 metres from the target, twice at a distance of 8–9 metres and three times at a distance of 12–13 metres.

Bild-15-aleftcenter.jpg

In Scandinavia, the Battle axe rose in popularity during the Viking Age (c. 800–1100 AD), when the axe became something of a weapon of choice. During this time, the Nordic smiths developed axes with longer handles and thinner blades, making the axe head extra light for use in battle.

This type of axe was very common at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, for example, as documented in the Bayeux tapestry.

During the Middle Ages and Renaissance (around the 11th–16th centuries), European armies often had two different types of battle axe: a small axe with a short handle, often carried on the belt, and a larger one with a longer handle. The knights often fought on foot, when it was common to use battle axes. It was also common to find axes where the butt ended in an iron spike and the hand was protected by an iron plate on the handle. During the 15th century, knights in Germany and France in particular used special battle axes that were intended to crush the opponent’s metal armour. These axes were heavier, with a shorter handle and a rather blunter edge.

In Central Europe, throwing axes made entirely of iron were used in the late Middle Ages. The handle was usually 25–30 centimetres long and ended in a point. The butt also had a sharp spike and the cutting edge was around 16 centimetres long. In addition to these, there have been many other models of throwing axe.

There were also large battle axes with a broad long head on a long handle. One example is the Bearded axe, which often had an elongated edge with a sabre-like curve called a beard. The lower part of the blade was fixed to the handle with a rivet. The handle was about 1.4 metres long. On some models, the front part of the axe blade was shaped into a hand guard. Bearded axes came in many varieties, with one or more points or hooks. The bearded axe is sometimes referred as the “half-moon”. Other names were “bardiche” and “halberd”. These axes were common in Western and Central Europe during parts of the 14th century, before becoming more widely used, particularly in Sweden and Eastern Europe.

In Europe, the axe declined in popularity as the sword was developed, but it remained a cheap and easily accessible weapon for ordinary people such as peasants at times of unrest and for self-defence against bandits.

The executioner’s broad axe

In Europe, the broad axe gradually began to replace the sword as the tool of choice for beheadings during the latter part of the Middle Ages.

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In Sweden, beheading by broad axe was a method of execution used in the 18th and 19th centuries. The final execution with a broad axe in Sweden was that of murderer John Filip Nordlund. It was carried out by national executioner Albert Gustaf Dahlman at Västerås County Jail on 10 December 1900.

The broad axe was then retired in favour of the guillotine for executions in Sweden, although this method was only used once, in 1910, when the last execution took place in Sweden.

The axe as a symbol

Alongside its practical applications, all through history the axe has had a symbolic meaning. As an early example, we have the aforementioned boat axes from the Stone Age. The axe was also a cult object in China, the Inca empire and ancient Greece and Rome.

The Swedish History Museum in Stockholm has a double-headed axe made from clay, overlaid in gold. A clay axe could not have been a tool, only a cult object – with the double-headed axe representing the circle of life. Like the crescent moon that waxed and waned, one can imagine that the two blades of the axe might symbolise birth and death in some form of related ritual.

The Minoan culture flourished in Knossos on the Greek island of Crete in around 2500 BC. Knossos was probably the biggest and most powerful of several centres in the eastern Mediterranean at that time. The enormous Labyrinth palace was home to the ruling dynasty, but also the hub of political and economic life in Knossos. Colourful religious ceremonies and ecstatic cult festivals took place here.

The word “labyrinth” comes from labrys, an ancient Cretan word for a double-headed axe. As the name of the palace, Labyrinth meant House of the Double Axe. Images of double-headed axes have been found carved into stone in Knossos. It is known that the double-headed axe played a major role in Minoan culture and was a symbol of power.

Excavations of the Knossos palace have uncovered a mural of a heavily armed woman who has a double-headed axe in each hand. The House of the Double Axe and the woman with the double-headed axes represented just a few of the symbols and depictions in Minoan society. Religion and ritual were an integrated part of general culture.

Double-headed axe with bull’s head (boukranion) from Mycenaean Greece.

In the Roman Empire, a lictor (a civil servant tasked with attending and guarding the magistrates of the empire) carried a bundle of rods, known as a fasces  with a decorative broad axe attached. The fasces symbolised the power to punish. The bundle of rods represented the power to flog and the broad axe the power to execute. Today the fasces can still be seen in the emblem of the Swedish and Norwegian police forces and in the French national coat of arms. Mussolini adopted the fasces as a symbol of his movement, which led to the name Fascism.

In the Nordic region, the battle axe became a symbol of power and rank during the Viking Age. The axes were ornately decorated as important status symbols. In Norway, the axe became one of St Olaf’s holy attributes.

The axe has also been used as a symbol in the military. The provost marshal, a former non-commissioned officer tasked with keeping order and carrying out punishments, wore a symbolic axe on his uniform. Sappers – military woodsmen – carried a large axe on parade as a symbol of their duty. This lives on in the Swedish army, for example, in the emblem of the engineering troops.

Axes as weapons

Along with the club and spear, the axe is one of mankind’s oldest close combat weapons. The first axes used as weapons were probably the same axes that were used as tools, since these were near at hand. However, the focus shifted to developing specific axes for fighting, although “ordinary” axes continued being used as weapons up until recent times. An axe produced with the specific intention of being used as a weapon in combat is called a battle axe. These were being made as far back as the Stone Age and Bronze Age.

An axe intended to be thrown as a projectile is called a Throwing axe. Throwing axes usually had a short handle. Such weapons were used by Teutonic tribes during the era of the Great Migration (400–500 AD), but also by the Franks. The Frankish throwing axes had thick but sharp axe heads and short handles. They were thrown at a distance of 10 or 12 paces from the enemy.

Excavations of Central European graves from the period 500–750 AD uncovered a special axe that has been named the Franziska. This axe was initially used by the Franks, before spreading to the Teutons, Burgundians, Lombards and finally the Goths.

The Franziska was probably used mostly as a hand weapon in close combat – it paid to keep a firm grip on your weapon at all times. It is unlikely that a warrior would throw away his prized weapon and then stand unarmed, although this is said to have happened when the Franks assaulted their enemies in Italy. However, conditions were very different when out hunting with the axe. It was much more difficult to get within arm’s length of a shy animal than an opponent in battle. An axe could, though, be thrown quickly and quietly from a distance with great precision. And if it did miss the target, on the hunt there was time to recover the axe without the threat of attack from an enemy.

The Franziska has an unusual shape and was clearly designed to be an effective throwing weapon. When correctly thrown, a Franziska rotates a number of times in the air before the axe blade hits its target. The axe will rotate once at a distance of 4–5 metres from the target, twice at a distance of 8–9 metres and three times at a distance of 12–13 metres.

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In Scandinavia, the Battle axe rose in popularity during the Viking Age (c. 800–1100 AD), when the axe became something of a weapon of choice. During this time, the Nordic smiths developed axes with longer handles and thinner blades, making the axe head extra light for use in battle.

This type of axe was very common at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, for example, as documented in the Bayeux tapestry.

During the Middle Ages and Renaissance (around the 11th–16th centuries), European armies often had two different types of battle axe: a small axe with a short handle, often carried on the belt, and a larger one with a longer handle. The knights often fought on foot, when it was common to use battle axes. It was also common to find axes where the butt ended in an iron spike and the hand was protected by an iron plate on the handle. During the 15th century, knights in Germany and France in particular used special battle axes that were intended to crush the opponent’s metal armour. These axes were heavier, with a shorter handle and a rather blunter edge.

In Central Europe, throwing axes made entirely of iron were used in the late Middle Ages. The handle was usually 25–30 centimetres long and ended in a point. The butt also had a sharp spike and the cutting edge was around 16 centimetres long. In addition to these, there have been many other models of throwing axe.

There were also large battle axes with a broad long head on a long handle. One example is the Bearded axe, which often had an elongated edge with a sabre-like curve called a beard. The lower part of the blade was fixed to the handle with a rivet. The handle was about 1.4 metres long. On some models, the front part of the axe blade was shaped into a hand guard. Bearded axes came in many varieties, with one or more points or hooks. The bearded axe is sometimes referred as the “half-moon”. Other names were “bardiche” and “halberd”. These axes were common in Western and Central Europe during parts of the 14th century, before becoming more widely used, particularly in Sweden and Eastern Europe.

In Europe, the axe declined in popularity as the sword was developed, but it remained a cheap and easily accessible weapon for ordinary people such as peasants at times of unrest and for self-defence against bandits.

The executioner’s broad axe

In Europe, the broad axe gradually began to replace the sword as the tool of choice for beheadings during the latter part of the Middle Ages.

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In Sweden, beheading by broad axe was a method of execution used in the 18th and 19th centuries. The final execution with a broad axe in Sweden was that of murderer John Filip Nordlund. It was carried out by national executioner Albert Gustaf Dahlman at Västerås County Jail on 10 December 1900.

The broad axe was then retired in favour of the guillotine for executions in Sweden, although this method was only used once, in 1910, when the last execution took place in Sweden.

The axe as a symbol

Alongside its practical applications, all through history the axe has had a symbolic meaning. As an early example, we have the aforementioned boat axes from the Stone Age. The axe was also a cult object in China, the Inca empire and ancient Greece and Rome.

The Swedish History Museum in Stockholm has a double-headed axe made from clay, overlaid in gold. A clay axe could not have been a tool, only a cult object – with the double-headed axe representing the circle of life. Like the crescent moon that waxed and waned, one can imagine that the two blades of the axe might symbolise birth and death in some form of related ritual.

The Minoan culture flourished in Knossos on the Greek island of Crete in around 2500 BC. Knossos was probably the biggest and most powerful of several centres in the eastern Mediterranean at that time. The enormous Labyrinth palace was home to the ruling dynasty, but also the hub of political and economic life in Knossos. Colourful religious ceremonies and ecstatic cult festivals took place here.

The word “labyrinth” comes from labrys, an ancient Cretan word for a double-headed axe. As the name of the palace, Labyrinth meant House of the Double Axe. Images of double-headed axes have been found carved into stone in Knossos. It is known that the double-headed axe played a major role in Minoan culture and was a symbol of power.

Excavations of the Knossos palace have uncovered a mural of a heavily armed woman who has a double-headed axe in each hand. The House of the Double Axe and the woman with the double-headed axes represented just a few of the symbols and depictions in Minoan society. Religion and ritual were an integrated part of general culture.

Double-headed axe with bull’s head (boukranion) from Mycenaean Greece.

In the Roman Empire, a lictor (a civil servant tasked with attending and guarding the magistrates of the empire) carried a bundle of rods, known as a fasces  with a decorative broad axe attached. The fasces symbolised the power to punish. The bundle of rods represented the power to flog and the broad axe the power to execute. Today the fasces can still be seen in the emblem of the Swedish and Norwegian police forces and in the French national coat of arms. Mussolini adopted the fasces as a symbol of his movement, which led to the name Fascism.

In the Nordic region, the battle axe became a symbol of power and rank during the Viking Age. The axes were ornately decorated as important status symbols. In Norway, the axe became one of St Olaf’s holy attributes.

The axe has also been used as a symbol in the military. The provost marshal, a former non-commissioned officer tasked with keeping order and carrying out punishments, wore a symbolic axe on his uniform. Sappers – military woodsmen – carried a large axe on parade as a symbol of their duty. This lives on in the Swedish army, for example, in the emblem of the engineering troops.

Yxor som vapen

Yxan är tillsammans med klubban och spjutet ett av människans äldsta närstridsvapen. De första yxor som användes som vapen var förmodligen samma yxor som användes som verktyg, då dessa fanns nära till hands. Så småningom började man utveckla särskilda yxor som vapen, även om “vanliga” yxor fortsatt att användas som vapen fram till våra dagar. En yxa som framställts särskilt med avsikt att användas som vapen i strid kallas för stridsyxa. Sådana framställdes redan på sten- och bronsålder.

En yxa avsedd att kastas som en projektil kallas för kastyxa. Kastyxorna hade vanligen korta skaft. Sådana vapen användes av germanstammar under folkvandringstiden (ca 400 – 500 e.kr.), men även av frankerna. Frankernas kastyxor hade tjocka men skarpa yxhuvuden och korta skaft. De kastades på tio till tolv stegs avstånd från fienden.

I centraleuropeiska gravar från perioden 500 – 750 e. Kr. förekommer ibland en speciell yxmodell som benämns Franziska. Inledningsvis brukades modellen av Frankerna men spred sig vidare bland germanerna, burgunderna, lombarderna och slutligen goterna.

Franziskan användes mestadels som handvapen i närkamp – då gällde det att ha ett stadigt grepp om sitt vapen. Det är inte troligt att en krigare kastade iväg sitt dyrbara vapen för att sedan stå vapenlös, även om det påstås ha förekommit exempelvis när Frankerna anföll sina fiender i Italien. När yxan användes som ett jaktvapen, var det däremot under helt andra förutsättningar. Det var betydligt svårare att komma på armlängds avstånd till ett skyggt djur än en motståndare, däremot kunde en yxa snabbt och tyst kastas från avstånd med stor precision. Missades ändå målet, gick det i en jaktsituation att leta reda på yxan utan att hotas av en fiende i närkamp.

Franziskan har en mycket speciell form. Det är uppenbart att yxans form är framtagen för att vara just ett effektivt kastvapen. När en Franziska kastas korrekt, roterar den ett antal gånger i luften innan yxbladet slutligen träffar sitt mål. På 4 – 5 meters avstånd till mål roterar yxan ett varv, på 8-9 meters avstånd två varv och på 12-13 meters avstånd krävs det tre varvs rotation.

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I Skandinavien fick stridsyxan ett uppsving under vikingatiden (ca 800 – 1100 e.kr) då yxan kom att bli något av ett modevapen. De nordiska smederna utvecklade under vikingatiden yxor med tunnare blad och långa skaft, där yxhuvudet var extra lätt för att kunna användas i strid.

Denna typ av yxor var t.ex. mycket vanliga vid slaget i Hastings 1066, vilket dokumenterats på den så kallade Beauxtapeten.

De europeiska arméerna hade under medeltiden och renässansen (ca 1000 – 1500 talet) ofta två olika typer av stridsyxor. En mindre med kort skaft, som ofta bars i bältet och en större med längre skaft. Riddarna stred ofta till fots och det var då vanligt att stridsyxor användes. Yxor där yxnacken slutade i en järnpik och där handen även skyddades av en järnskiva fastsatt på skaftet var även vanligt. Under 1400-talet förekom det, i framförallt Tyskland och Frankrike, att riddare använde speciella stridsyxor som var avsedda att krossa motståndarens plåtharnesk. Dessa yxor var tyngre med ett kortare skaft och en något trubbigare egg.

I Centraleuropa användes under senare delen av medeltiden kastyxor helt och hållet gjorda av järn. Skaftet var vanligen 25 – 30 centimeter långt och slutade i en spets. Yxnacken var även försedd med en skarp pik och eggen var cirka 16 centimeter lång. Utöver dessa har även många andra modeller av kastyxor varit i bruk.

Det förekom även stora stridsyxor med bred lång egg med långt skaft. Ett exempel är Skäggyxan. Skäggyxans egg var ofta utdragen med sabelliknande flikar som kallades skägg (detta ska inte förväxlas med det som idag kallas skägg på en yxa, se yxans delar). Eggpartiets nedre del var fästad vid skaftet med en nit. Skaftet var cirka 1,4 meter långt. På en del modeller var yxbladets främre del utformad till en stötklinga.

Skäggyxor tillverkades i många varianter med en eller flera spetsar eller hakar. Skäggyxan kallades ibland “halvmåne”. Ett annat namn var “bardisch” eller ”hillebard”. Dessa yxor var vanliga i väst och Centraleuropa under delar av 1300-talet, för att sedan användas mer och mer i framförallt Sverige och östra Europa.

I Europa förlorade yxan i popularitet i takt med att svärdet utvecklades, men fanns kvar som ett billigt och lättillgängligt vapen för vanligt folk som bönder vid bland annat uppror och för självförsvar mot stråtrövare.

Skarprättarens bila började dock i Europa gradvis ersätta svärdet som redskap vid halshuggningar under senare delen av medeltiden.

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I Sverige var halshuggning med bila en avrättningsmetod som användes under 1700- och 1800-talen. Den sista avrättning som genomfördes med halshuggning med bila i Sverige var den av mördaren John Filip Nordlund. Den utfördes av riksskarprättare Albert Gustaf Dahlman på Västerås länsfängelse den 10 december år 1900.

Efter det infördes giljotin för avrättning i Sverige. En metod som endast kom att användas en gång, nämligen 1910 då den sista avrättningen skedde i Sverige.

Yxan som symbol

Yxan har alltigenom historien förutom sina praktiska användningsområden även haft en symbolisk betydelse. Som ett tidigt exempel har vi de ovan nämnda båtyxorna under stenåldern. Även i Kina, Inkariket och antikens Grekland och Rom förekom yxan som kultföremål.

På Historiska museet i Stockholm finns en dubbeleggad yxa av lera överklädd med guld. En yxa av lera kunde inte vara ett verktyg utan enbart ett kultföremål – ett kultföremål där den dubbeleggade yxan stod för livets gång. Likt månens skärs som kom och gick kan man tänka sig att yxans båda eggar fick symbolisera födelsen respektive döden i någon form av födelse- och dödsrit.

Ca 2 500 f.kr. blomstrade den Minoiska kulturen i Knossos på den grekiska ön Kreta. Knossos var troligen det största och mäktigaste av flera centra i östra Medelhavsområdet på den här tiden. Det enorma palatset Labyrint var härskarnas bostad men också centralpunkt i Knossos politiska och ekonomiska liv. Här ägde färgrika religiösa ceremonier och extatiska kultfester rum.

Namnet Labyrint kommer från ordet Labrys, ett gammalt kretensiskt ord för dubbelyxa. Palatsets namn Labyrinten betydde Dubbelyxans Hus. I Knossos har man funnit bilder av dubbeleggade yxor inhuggna i sten. Det är känt att den dubbeleggade yxan spelade en stor roll i minoisk kultur och var symbol för makt.

Vid utgrävningar i Knossospalatset har man bland annat funnit en väggmålning med en rikt utstyrd kvinna som i var hand håller en dubbeleggad yxa. Dubbelyxans hus och kvinnan med de dubbeleggade yxorna representerade bara några av de symboler och föreställningar i det minoiska samhället. Religionen och riterna var en integrerad del av den totala kulturen.

I det romerska riket bar liktorerna (en statstjänsteman i antikens Rom som fungerade som livvakt åt olika ämbetsmän) spöknippen, fasces, med en dekorativ bila. Fasces symboliserade makten att bestraffa. Spöna syftade på makten att prygla och bilan på makten att halshugga. Mussolini antog fasces som symbol för sin rörelse, vilket gav den namnet fascism. Idag finns bland annat fasces i den svenska och norska polisens emblem och i Frankrikes statsvapen.

I Norden kom stridsyxan att bli en symbol för makt och värdighet under vikingatiden. Yxorna var vackert utsmyckade och var en viktig statussymbol. I Norge blev yxan ett av Olav den heliges attribut.

Inom det militära har yxan använts som symbol. Profossen, förr en underofficer med uppgift att hålla ordning och utföra bestraffningar, bar en symbolisk yxa i sin uniform. Sappörerna, militära timmermän, bar till parad en stor timmeryxa som symbol för sin uppgift. Denna lever bland annat kvar i Sveriges armé i ingenjörstruppernas emblem.

Äxte als Waffen

Axt, Keule und Speer zählen zu den ältesten Nahkampfwaffen des Menschen. Die ersten als Waffen eingesetzten Äxte dienten vermutlich ebenfalls als Werkzeuge, da sie schnell zur Hand waren. Schließlich wurde mit der Entwicklung spezifischer Waffenäxte begonnen. Trotzdem wurden die „normalen“ Äxte weiterhin und bis in unsere Zeit hinein weiterverwendet. Eine Axt, die gezielt für den Kampfeinsatz hergestellt wird, heißt Streitaxt. Solche Äxte wurden bereits in der Stein- und Bronzezeit gefertigt.

Eine Axt, die als Wurfgeschoss dient, wird als Wurfaxt bezeichnet. Wurfäxteverfügten in der Regel über kurze Schäfte. Solche Waffen kamen bei germanischen Stämmen während der Völkerwanderung (ca. 400 bis 500 n. Chr.) zum Einsatz, wurden aber auch von den Franken verwendet. Die Wurfäxte der Franken zeichnete sich durch dicke, aber scharfe Axtköpfe und kurze Schäfte aus. Sie wurden in einem Abstand von zehn bis zwölf Schritten zum Feind geworfen.

In mitteleuropäischen Gräbern aus der Zeit von 500 bis 750 n. Chr. wurde mitunter ein ganz besonderes Axtmodell gefunden, das die Bezeichnung Franziskaerhielt. Anfangs war dieses Modell nur bei den Franken gebräuchlich, fand alsbald aber auch bei den Germanen, Burgundern, Langobarden und schließlich den Goten Verbreitung.

Die Franziska wurde meist als Handwaffe im Nahkampf eingesetzt, wobei es galt, die Waffe fest im Griff zu haben. Es ist sehr unwahrscheinlich, dass ein Krieger seine kostbare Waffe einfach fortwarf und dann unbewaffnet war, auch wenn dies z.B. von den Franken behauptet wird, als diese ihre Gegner im heutigen Italien anfielen. Wurde die Axt hingegen als Jagdwaffe benutzt, geschah dies unter ganz anderen Bedingungen. Bei einem scheuen Tier war es viel schwieriger als bei einem menschlichen Gegner, eine Armlänge Abstand zu halten. Eine Axt konnte schnell, leise und mit hoher Präzision aus der Ferne geworfen werden. Verfehlte sie ihr Ziel, konnte die Axt während der Jagd wieder aufgespürt werden. Eine unmittelbare Bedrohung durch einen Feind wie im Nahkampf gab es dabei nicht.

Die Franziska zeichnet sich durch eine ganz besondere Form aus. An ihr wird deutlich, dass sie als effektive Wurfwaffe konzipiert wurde. Wird eine Franziska korrekt geworfen, rotiert sie einige Male in der Luft, bevor das Axtblatt sein Ziel trifft. In einer Entfernung von 4 bis 5 m zum Ziel dreht sich die Axt einmal, bei einem Abstand von 8 bis 9 m zweimal und bei einer Distanz von 12 bis 13 m werden drei Umdrehungen ausgeführt.

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In Skandinavien erlebte die Streitaxtwährend der Wikingerzeit (ca. 800 bis 1100 n. Chr.) einen enormen Aufschwung, als sie sich als eine Art Modewaffe etablierte. Die skandinavischen Schmiede entwickelten während der Wikingerzeit Äxte mit dünneren Blättern und langen Schäften. Der besonders leichte Axtkopf war wie geschaffen für den Kampfeinsatz.

Diese Äxte wurden z.B. während der Schlacht von Hastings im Jahr 1066 eingesetzt. Dies ist auf dem Teppich von Bayeux eindeutig zu erkennen.

Die europäischen Armeen verwendeten während des Mittelalters und in der Renaissance (ca. 11. bis 16. Jh.) zwei unterschiedliche Arten von Streitäxten. Eine kleinere mit kurzem Schaft, die häufig am Gürtel getragen wurde, und eine größere mit einem längeren Schaft. Ritter kämpften häufig zu Fuß und verwendeten dabei üblicherweise Streitäxte.

Äxte, bei denen der Nacken in eine Eisenspitze mündete und die Hand von einer Eisenscheibe geschützt wurde, waren ebenfalls typisch für diese Zeit. Im 15. Jh. verwendeten Ritter, vor allem in deutschen und französischen Landen, spezielle Streitäxte, als es galt, den blechernen Harnisch des Gegners zu zerstören. Diese Äxte waren schwerer, zeichneten sich durch einen kürzeren Schaft und eine etwas stumpfere Schneide aus.

In Mitteleuropa wurden im späten Mittelalter Wurfäxte eingesetzt, die komplett aus Eisen gefertigt waren. Der Schaft war in der Regel 25 bis 30 cm lang und endete in einer Spitze. Der Axtnacken war mit einer scharfen Spitze versehen. Die Schneide war rund 16 cm lang. Darüber hinaus war eine Reihe anderer Wurfaxtmodelle im Einsatz.

Große Streitäxte mit einer breiten langen Schneide und einem langen Schaft. Ein Beispiel dafür ist die so genannte Bartaxt. Die Schneide der Bartaxt ist mit säbelartigen Kanten versehen, die als Bart bezeichnet wurden. (Nicht zu verwechseln mit dem, was heute als Bart einer Axt bezeichnet wird, siehe Axtbestandteile.) Der untere Teil der Schneide war mithilfe einer Niete am Schaft befestigt. Der Schaft war etwa 1,4 m lang. An einigen Modellen war der Frontbereich des Axtblattes zur Stoßklinge geformt.

Bartäxte wurden in vielfältigen Ausführungen mit einer oder mehreren Spitzen oder Haken gefertigt. Die Bartaxt wurde hin und wieder auch als „Halbmond“ bezeichnet. Ein anderer Name dafür war „Bardiche“ oder „Hellebarde“. Diese Äxte waren vor allem in West- und Mitteleuropa in Teilen des 14. Jahrhunderts verbreitet, um dann immer stärker Einzug im heutigen Schweden und in Osteuropa zu halten.

Mit dem Aufkommen des Schwerts hatte die Axt in Europa zunehmend ausgedient. Als preiswerte und leicht verfügbare Waffe für normale Menschen wie Bauern fand sie nach wie vor bei Aufständen und zur Selbstverteidigung gegenüber Wegelagerern Einsatz.

In der zweiten Hälfte des Mittelalters begann das Beildes Scharfrichters jedoch das Schwert als Gerät beim Köpfen allmählich abzulösen.

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In Schweden war die Enthauptung mit dem Beil eine Hinrichtungsmethode, die im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert genutzt wurde. Die letzte Hinrichtung dieser Art wurde in Schweden dem Mörder John Philip Nordlund zuteil. Das Todesurteil wurde vom Reichshenker Albert Gustaf Dahlman im Bezirksgefängnis von Västerås am 10. Dezember 1900 vollstreckt.

Danach wurde in Schweden die Guillotine zu Hinrichtungszwecken eingeführt. Diese kam jedoch nur ein einziges Mal zum Einsatz – im Jahr 1910 bei der letzten Hinrichtung in Schweden.

Die Axt als Symbol

Neben ihrem praktischen Nutzen wurde die Axt im Laufe der Geschichte auch mit einer symbolischen Bedeutung belegt. Ein frühes Beispiel dafür sind die o.g. Bootäxte der Steinzeit. Selbst in China, im Reich der Inka, im antiken Griechenland und im Alten Rom galt die Axt als Kultobjekt.

Im Historischen Museum von Stockholm befindet sich eine Doppelaxt aus Ton, die mit Gold überzogen ist. Eine Axt aus Ton dient nicht als Werkzeug, sondern ausschließlich als Kultobjekt. Die doppelte Anordnung der Schneide (Zweischneidigkeit) symbolisiert dabei den Lauf des Lebens. Genau wie sich die Sichelgestalt des Mondes wandelt, stellen die beiden Schneiden die Geburt bzw. den Tod in einem wie auch immer gearteten Ritus dar.

Etwa 2500 v. Chr erlebte auf der griechischen Insel Kreta die minoische Kultur von Knossos ihre Blütezeit. Knossos war vermutlich zu dieser Zeit das größte und mächtigste mehrerer Zentren in der östlichen Mittelmeerregion. Der labyrinthartig angelegte Palast war der Wohnort der Herrscher sowie zentraler Dreh- und Angelpunkt des politischen und wirtschaftlichen Lebens von Knossos. Hier fanden die farbenprächtigen religiösen Zeremonien und ekstatischen Kultfeierlichkeiten statt.

Der Name Labyrinth leitet sich vom alten kretischen Wort „Labrys“ab, was so viel wie Doppelaxt bedeutet. Die Bezeichnung des Palasts als Labyrinth weist auf seine Bedeutung als Haus der Doppelaxthin. So wurden in Knossos in Stein gehauene Abbildungen von Doppeläxten gefunden. Bekannt ist, dass die Doppelaxt in der minoischen Kultur eine große Bedeutung hatte und als Machtsymbol diente.

Bei Ausgrabungen im Palast von Knossos wurde u.a. eine Wandmalerei gefunden, auf der eine reich gekleidete Frau dargestellt ist, die in jeder Hand eine Doppelaxt hält. Das Haus der Doppelaxt und die Darstellung der Frau mit den Doppeläxten sind nur einige der zahlreichen Symbole und Vorstellungen, die in der minoischen Gesellschaft galten. Religion und Riten waren integraler Bestandteil der gesamten Kultur.

Im Römischen Reich trugen die Liktoren (eine Art Staatsbedienstete im antiken Rom, die als Leibwächter für verschiedene Beamte fungierten) Rutenbündel, die so genannten Fasces(Bild 20) mit einem Zierbeil. Diese Fasces symbolisierten die Macht zur Bestrafung. Die Gerten deuteten auf die Macht zur Züchtigung, das Beil auf Macht zur Enthauptung hin. Mussolini übernahm die Fasces als Symbol für seine faschistische Bewegung. Sie dienten vermutlich auch als Namensgeber für den Begriff Faschismus. Noch heute finden sich Fasces in den Emblemen der schwedischen und norwegischen Polizei sowie im Staatswappen Frankreichs wieder.

In Skandinavien erlangte die Streitaxt in der Wikingerzeit Bedeutung als Symbol für Macht und Würde. Die Äxte waren reich verziert und galten als wichtiges Statussymbol. In Norwegen wird Olav dem Heiligen die Axt als eines von vielen Attributen zugeschrieben.

Selbst ins Militärwesen hielt die Axt symbolträchtigen Einzug. Der früher mit der Aufrechterhaltung von Ordnung und Bestrafung beauftragte Unteroffizier Profoss trug eine symbolische Axt an seiner Uniform. Sappeure, so etwas wie militärische Zimmerleute, trugen anlässlich von Paraden eine große Zimmeraxt, die ihre Aufgabe symbolisierte. Diese Symbolik ist bis heute im Emblem der technischen Gruppe der schwedischen Armee zu finden.

Axes as weapons

Along with the club and spear, the axe is one of mankind’s oldest close combat weapons. The first axes used as weapons were probably the same axes that were used as tools, since these were near at hand. However, the focus shifted to developing specific axes for fighting, although “ordinary” axes continued being used as weapons up until recent times. An axe produced with the specific intention of being used as a weapon in combat is called a battle axe. These were being made as far back as the Stone Age and Bronze Age.

An axe intended to be thrown as a projectile is called a Throwing axe. Throwing axes usually had a short handle. Such weapons were used by Teutonic tribes during the era of the Great Migration (400–500 AD), but also by the Franks. The Frankish throwing axes had thick but sharp axe heads and short handles. They were thrown at a distance of 10 or 12 paces from the enemy.

Excavations of Central European graves from the period 500–750 AD uncovered a special axe that has been named the Franziska. This axe was initially used by the Franks, before spreading to the Teutons, Burgundians, Lombards and finally the Goths.

The Franziska was probably used mostly as a hand weapon in close combat – it paid to keep a firm grip on your weapon at all times. It is unlikely that a warrior would throw away his prized weapon and then stand unarmed, although this is said to have happened when the Franks assaulted their enemies in Italy. However, conditions were very different when out hunting with the axe. It was much more difficult to get within arm’s length of a shy animal than an opponent in battle. An axe could, though, be thrown quickly and quietly from a distance with great precision. And if it did miss the target, on the hunt there was time to recover the axe without the threat of attack from an enemy.

The Franziska has an unusual shape and was clearly designed to be an effective throwing weapon. When correctly thrown, a Franziska rotates a number of times in the air before the axe blade hits its target. The axe will rotate once at a distance of 4–5 metres from the target, twice at a distance of 8–9 metres and three times at a distance of 12–13 metres.

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In Scandinavia, the Battle axe rose in popularity during the Viking Age (c. 800–1100 AD), when the axe became something of a weapon of choice. During this time, the Nordic smiths developed axes with longer handles and thinner blades, making the axe head extra light for use in battle.

This type of axe was very common at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, for example, as documented in the Bayeux tapestry.

During the Middle Ages and Renaissance (around the 11th–16th centuries), European armies often had two different types of battle axe: a small axe with a short handle, often carried on the belt, and a larger one with a longer handle. The knights often fought on foot, when it was common to use battle axes. It was also common to find axes where the butt ended in an iron spike and the hand was protected by an iron plate on the handle. During the 15th century, knights in Germany and France in particular used special battle axes that were intended to crush the opponent’s metal armour. These axes were heavier, with a shorter handle and a rather blunter edge.

In Central Europe, throwing axes made entirely of iron were used in the late Middle Ages. The handle was usually 25–30 centimetres long and ended in a point. The butt also had a sharp spike and the cutting edge was around 16 centimetres long. In addition to these, there have been many other models of throwing axe.

There were also large battle axes with a broad long head on a long handle. One example is the Bearded axe, which often had an elongated edge with a sabre-like curve called a beard. The lower part of the blade was fixed to the handle with a rivet. The handle was about 1.4 metres long. On some models, the front part of the axe blade was shaped into a hand guard. Bearded axes came in many varieties, with one or more points or hooks. The bearded axe is sometimes referred as the “half-moon”. Other names were “bardiche” and “halberd”. These axes were common in Western and Central Europe during parts of the 14th century, before becoming more widely used, particularly in Sweden and Eastern Europe.

In Europe, the axe declined in popularity as the sword was developed, but it remained a cheap and easily accessible weapon for ordinary people such as peasants at times of unrest and for self-defence against bandits.

The executioner’s broad axe

In Europe, the broad axe gradually began to replace the sword as the tool of choice for beheadings during the latter part of the Middle Ages.

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In Sweden, beheading by broad axe was a method of execution used in the 18th and 19th centuries. The final execution with a broad axe in Sweden was that of murderer John Filip Nordlund. It was carried out by national executioner Albert Gustaf Dahlman at Västerås County Jail on 10 December 1900.

The broad axe was then retired in favour of the guillotine for executions in Sweden, although this method was only used once, in 1910, when the last execution took place in Sweden.

The axe as a symbol

Alongside its practical applications, all through history the axe has had a symbolic meaning. As an early example, we have the aforementioned boat axes from the Stone Age. The axe was also a cult object in China, the Inca empire and ancient Greece and Rome.

The Swedish History Museum in Stockholm has a double-headed axe made from clay, overlaid in gold. A clay axe could not have been a tool, only a cult object – with the double-headed axe representing the circle of life. Like the crescent moon that waxed and waned, one can imagine that the two blades of the axe might symbolise birth and death in some form of related ritual.

The Minoan culture flourished in Knossos on the Greek island of Crete in around 2500 BC. Knossos was probably the biggest and most powerful of several centres in the eastern Mediterranean at that time. The enormous Labyrinth palace was home to the ruling dynasty, but also the hub of political and economic life in Knossos. Colourful religious ceremonies and ecstatic cult festivals took place here.

The word “labyrinth” comes from labrys, an ancient Cretan word for a double-headed axe. As the name of the palace, Labyrinth meant House of the Double Axe. Images of double-headed axes have been found carved into stone in Knossos. It is known that the double-headed axe played a major role in Minoan culture and was a symbol of power.

Excavations of the Knossos palace have uncovered a mural of a heavily armed woman who has a double-headed axe in each hand. The House of the Double Axe and the woman with the double-headed axes represented just a few of the symbols and depictions in Minoan society. Religion and ritual were an integrated part of general culture.

Double-headed axe with bull’s head (boukranion) from Mycenaean Greece.

In the Roman Empire, a lictor (a civil servant tasked with attending and guarding the magistrates of the empire) carried a bundle of rods, known as a fasces  with a decorative broad axe attached. The fasces symbolised the power to punish. The bundle of rods represented the power to flog and the broad axe the power to execute. Today the fasces can still be seen in the emblem of the Swedish and Norwegian police forces and in the French national coat of arms. Mussolini adopted the fasces as a symbol of his movement, which led to the name Fascism.

In the Nordic region, the battle axe became a symbol of power and rank during the Viking Age. The axes were ornately decorated as important status symbols. In Norway, the axe became one of St Olaf’s holy attributes.

The axe has also been used as a symbol in the military. The provost marshal, a former non-commissioned officer tasked with keeping order and carrying out punishments, wore a symbolic axe on his uniform. Sappers – military woodsmen – carried a large axe on parade as a symbol of their duty. This lives on in the Swedish army, for example, in the emblem of the engineering troops.

Yxor som vapen

Yxan är tillsammans med klubban och spjutet ett av människans äldsta närstridsvapen. De första yxor som användes som vapen var förmodligen samma yxor som användes som verktyg, då dessa fanns nära till hands. Så småningom började man utveckla särskilda yxor som vapen, även om “vanliga” yxor fortsatt att användas som vapen fram till våra dagar. En yxa som framställts särskilt med avsikt att användas som vapen i strid kallas för stridsyxa. Sådana framställdes redan på sten- och bronsålder.

En yxa avsedd att kastas som en projektil kallas för kastyxa. Kastyxorna hade vanligen korta skaft. Sådana vapen användes av germanstammar under folkvandringstiden (ca 400 – 500 e.kr.), men även av frankerna. Frankernas kastyxor hade tjocka men skarpa yxhuvuden och korta skaft. De kastades på tio till tolv stegs avstånd från fienden.

I centraleuropeiska gravar från perioden 500 – 750 e. Kr. förekommer ibland en speciell yxmodell som benämns Franziska. Inledningsvis brukades modellen av Frankerna men spred sig vidare bland germanerna, burgunderna, lombarderna och slutligen goterna.

Franziskan användes mestadels som handvapen i närkamp – då gällde det att ha ett stadigt grepp om sitt vapen. Det är inte troligt att en krigare kastade iväg sitt dyrbara vapen för att sedan stå vapenlös, även om det påstås ha förekommit exempelvis när Frankerna anföll sina fiender i Italien. När yxan användes som ett jaktvapen, var det däremot under helt andra förutsättningar. Det var betydligt svårare att komma på armlängds avstånd till ett skyggt djur än en motståndare, däremot kunde en yxa snabbt och tyst kastas från avstånd med stor precision. Missades ändå målet, gick det i en jaktsituation att leta reda på yxan utan att hotas av en fiende i närkamp.

Franziskan har en mycket speciell form. Det är uppenbart att yxans form är framtagen för att vara just ett effektivt kastvapen. När en Franziska kastas korrekt, roterar den ett antal gånger i luften innan yxbladet slutligen träffar sitt mål. På 4 – 5 meters avstånd till mål roterar yxan ett varv, på 8-9 meters avstånd två varv och på 12-13 meters avstånd krävs det tre varvs rotation.

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I Skandinavien fick stridsyxan ett uppsving under vikingatiden (ca 800 – 1100 e.kr) då yxan kom att bli något av ett modevapen. De nordiska smederna utvecklade under vikingatiden yxor med tunnare blad och långa skaft, där yxhuvudet var extra lätt för att kunna användas i strid.

Denna typ av yxor var t.ex. mycket vanliga vid slaget i Hastings 1066, vilket dokumenterats på den så kallade Beauxtapeten.

De europeiska arméerna hade under medeltiden och renässansen (ca 1000 – 1500 talet) ofta två olika typer av stridsyxor. En mindre med kort skaft, som ofta bars i bältet och en större med längre skaft. Riddarna stred ofta till fots och det var då vanligt att stridsyxor användes. Yxor där yxnacken slutade i en järnpik och där handen även skyddades av en järnskiva fastsatt på skaftet var även vanligt. Under 1400-talet förekom det, i framförallt Tyskland och Frankrike, att riddare använde speciella stridsyxor som var avsedda att krossa motståndarens plåtharnesk. Dessa yxor var tyngre med ett kortare skaft och en något trubbigare egg.

I Centraleuropa användes under senare delen av medeltiden kastyxor helt och hållet gjorda av järn. Skaftet var vanligen 25 – 30 centimeter långt och slutade i en spets. Yxnacken var även försedd med en skarp pik och eggen var cirka 16 centimeter lång. Utöver dessa har även många andra modeller av kastyxor varit i bruk.

Det förekom även stora stridsyxor med bred lång egg med långt skaft. Ett exempel är Skäggyxan. Skäggyxans egg var ofta utdragen med sabelliknande flikar som kallades skägg (detta ska inte förväxlas med det som idag kallas skägg på en yxa, se yxans delar). Eggpartiets nedre del var fästad vid skaftet med en nit. Skaftet var cirka 1,4 meter långt. På en del modeller var yxbladets främre del utformad till en stötklinga.

Skäggyxor tillverkades i många varianter med en eller flera spetsar eller hakar. Skäggyxan kallades ibland “halvmåne”. Ett annat namn var “bardisch” eller ”hillebard”. Dessa yxor var vanliga i väst och Centraleuropa under delar av 1300-talet, för att sedan användas mer och mer i framförallt Sverige och östra Europa.

I Europa förlorade yxan i popularitet i takt med att svärdet utvecklades, men fanns kvar som ett billigt och lättillgängligt vapen för vanligt folk som bönder vid bland annat uppror och för självförsvar mot stråtrövare.

Skarprättarens bila började dock i Europa gradvis ersätta svärdet som redskap vid halshuggningar under senare delen av medeltiden.

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I Sverige var halshuggning med bila en avrättningsmetod som användes under 1700- och 1800-talen. Den sista avrättning som genomfördes med halshuggning med bila i Sverige var den av mördaren John Filip Nordlund. Den utfördes av riksskarprättare Albert Gustaf Dahlman på Västerås länsfängelse den 10 december år 1900.

Efter det infördes giljotin för avrättning i Sverige. En metod som endast kom att användas en gång, nämligen 1910 då den sista avrättningen skedde i Sverige.

Yxan som symbol

Yxan har alltigenom historien förutom sina praktiska användningsområden även haft en symbolisk betydelse. Som ett tidigt exempel har vi de ovan nämnda båtyxorna under stenåldern. Även i Kina, Inkariket och antikens Grekland och Rom förekom yxan som kultföremål.

På Historiska museet i Stockholm finns en dubbeleggad yxa av lera överklädd med guld. En yxa av lera kunde inte vara ett verktyg utan enbart ett kultföremål – ett kultföremål där den dubbeleggade yxan stod för livets gång. Likt månens skärs som kom och gick kan man tänka sig att yxans båda eggar fick symbolisera födelsen respektive döden i någon form av födelse- och dödsrit.

Ca 2 500 f.kr. blomstrade den Minoiska kulturen i Knossos på den grekiska ön Kreta. Knossos var troligen det största och mäktigaste av flera centra i östra Medelhavsområdet på den här tiden. Det enorma palatset Labyrint var härskarnas bostad men också centralpunkt i Knossos politiska och ekonomiska liv. Här ägde färgrika religiösa ceremonier och extatiska kultfester rum.

Namnet Labyrint kommer från ordet Labrys, ett gammalt kretensiskt ord för dubbelyxa. Palatsets namn Labyrinten betydde Dubbelyxans Hus. I Knossos har man funnit bilder av dubbeleggade yxor inhuggna i sten. Det är känt att den dubbeleggade yxan spelade en stor roll i minoisk kultur och var symbol för makt.

Vid utgrävningar i Knossospalatset har man bland annat funnit en väggmålning med en rikt utstyrd kvinna som i var hand håller en dubbeleggad yxa. Dubbelyxans hus och kvinnan med de dubbeleggade yxorna representerade bara några av de symboler och föreställningar i det minoiska samhället. Religionen och riterna var en integrerad del av den totala kulturen.

I det romerska riket bar liktorerna (en statstjänsteman i antikens Rom som fungerade som livvakt åt olika ämbetsmän) spöknippen, fasces, med en dekorativ bila. Fasces symboliserade makten att bestraffa. Spöna syftade på makten att prygla och bilan på makten att halshugga. Mussolini antog fasces som symbol för sin rörelse, vilket gav den namnet fascism. Idag finns bland annat fasces i den svenska och norska polisens emblem och i Frankrikes statsvapen.

I Norden kom stridsyxan att bli en symbol för makt och värdighet under vikingatiden. Yxorna var vackert utsmyckade och var en viktig statussymbol. I Norge blev yxan ett av Olav den heliges attribut.

Inom det militära har yxan använts som symbol. Profossen, förr en underofficer med uppgift att hålla ordning och utföra bestraffningar, bar en symbolisk yxa i sin uniform. Sappörerna, militära timmermän, bar till parad en stor timmeryxa som symbol för sin uppgift. Denna lever bland annat kvar i Sveriges armé i ingenjörstruppernas emblem.

Die Axt in Religion und Mythologie

Äxte sind neben anderen Symbolen auch in verschiedenen Religionen und Mythologien als Attribute zu finden.

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Ganesha ist einer der bekanntesten Hindu-Götter. Als Gott der Weisheit hilft er den Menschen dabei, Hindernisse zu überwinden. Ganesha besitzt einen Elefantenkopf, vier Arme und einen großen Bauch, mit dem er das Universum in seiner unendlichen Vielfalt erfasst.

In einer seiner vielen Hände hält er eine Axt, die er dazu verwendet, das Band seiner Anhänger an die materielle Welt zu durchtrennen.

Der griechischen Mythologie zufolge wurde die Axt von Daedalus erfunden. (Daedalus ist der Vater von Ikarus, der der Sonne zu nahe kam, woraufhin das Wachs an seinen Flügeln schmolz.) Daedalus war für sein Talent bekannt und galt als Erfinder vieler Dinge, wie z.B. Bootssegel und das Labyrinth des Minotaurus.

Ebenfalls in der griechischen Mythologie findet sich die Sage vom Gott der Schmiedekunst Hephaistos, der den Kopf von Zeus mit seiner Doppelaxtspaltete. Dem gespaltenen Zeuskopf entstieg ausgewachsen und in voller Rüstung dessen Tochter Pallas Athene, die Göttin der Weisheit. Dieses Ereignis wird auf einer Athener Schale abgebildet (560 bis 550 v. Chr.).

Athene gilt darüber hinaus als Göttin der Zivilisation (des wohlgeordneten Lebens), der Weisheit und der weiblichen Handwerkskunst. Darüber hinaus wirkte sie als Göttin auch kontrollierend auf den Kampf ein. Damit steht sie symbolisch für Taktik, Geschick und Planung. Ihr Bruder Ares war der blutrünstige und unkontrollierte Gott des Krieges.

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Athenes Geburt ist in vielerlei Hinsicht bemerkenswert. Als Metis, eine der Geliebten von Zeus schwanger wurde, vernahm Zeus die Prophezeiung, dass Metis’ Kinder ihm an Macht überlegen sein würden. Metis verwandelte sich in eine Fliege und wurde von Zeus verschluckt.

Zeus wurde daraufhin einige Zeit später von heftigen Kopfschmerzen geplagt. Er rief den Gott der Schmiedekunst Hephaistos zu Hilfe und bat ihn, seinen Kopf zu öffnen, damit dieser die Ursache seines Schmerzes herausfände.

Hephaistos spaltete den Schädel von Zeus und Athene erblickte das Licht der Welt. Obwohl Metis von Zeus verschlungen worden war, hatte ihr Kind Athene überlebt und war in Zeus zur erwachsenen Frau herangereift. Diesem Gefängnis wollte sie entweichen.

Die Odyssee (von der vermutet wird, dass sie von Homer etwa 700 v. Chr. verfasst wurde) erzählt die Geschichte von Odysseus’ langer Reise. Während Odysseus’ Abwesenheit wird seine Frau Penelope von mehreren Freiern umworben. Penelope stellte ihre Freiern mehrere Aufgaben. Beim letzten Versuch versprach sie denjenigen zu heiraten, der mit Odysseus’ Bogen zwölf Axtringe auf einmal durchschießen könne. Keinem gelang es, den Bogen des Odysseus auch nur zu spannen. Nur Odysseus selbst, der als Bettler verkleidet nach Hause zurückgekehrt war und um einen Versuch bat, gelang ein perfekter Schuss durch alle zwölf Äxte.

In der chinesischen Mythologie wird erzählt, dass die Welt vom riesenhaften Pangu erschaffen wurde. Bei seiner Geburt aus einem Ei ergriff er eine schwere Axt und zerschlug das Ei mit einem mächtigen Hieb in zwei Teile. Die leichteren Elemente des Eis schwebten nach oben und bildeten den Himmel, die schwereren sanken nach unten und ließen die Erde entstehen.

Selbst die Bibel erwähnt die Axt im Zweiten Buch der Könige. Der Prophet Elisa (Elischa, Elisäus) bringt eine ins Wasser gefallene Axt wieder an die Oberfläche zurück. Möglicherweise stand diese Geschichte auch für das schwedische Sprichwort „Die Axt in den See werfen“ Pate, was im Deutschen mit dem Ausdruck „Der Axt den Stiel hinterherwerfen“ übereinstimmt und so viel wie die „Flinte ins Korn zu werfen“ bedeutet.

Yxan i religion och mytologi

Yxor har utöver att vara symboler även förekommit flitigt som attribut i olika religioner och mytologier.

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Ganesha är en av hinduismens mest populära gudar. Han är visdomens gud och hjälper människorna att övervinna hinder. Ganesha har ett elefanthuvud, fyra armar och en enorm mage som innesluter universum i hela dess väldighet.

I en av hans händer håller han en yxa som han använder för att hugga av anhängarens band till den materiella världen.

Enligt grekisk mytologi uppfanns yxan av Daedalus, (som var far till Ikaros, han med vingar av vax som smälte när han kom för nära solen). Daedalus var välkänd för sin talang och han låg bakom många saker som segel till båtar och även labyrinten.

Enligt den grekiska mytologin klöv smedguden Hefaistos överguden Zeus huvud med sin dubbeleggade yxa. Ur Zeus kluvna huvud föddes då Zeus dotter Pallas Athena, vishetens gudinna, fullvuxen och beväpnad. Händelsen avbildas på en athensk skål från 560-550 f kr.

Athena var civilisationens (det välordnade livet), vishetens och de kvinnliga hantverkens gudinna. Hon var också den kontrollerade stridens gudinna. Det betyder att hon stod för taktik, skicklighet och planering. Hennes bror Ares var den blodtörstiga, okontrollerade stridens gud.

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Hennes födsel är märklig. En av Zeus älskarinnor, Metis, blev med barn. Zeus fick höra en spådom att Metis barn skulle bli mäktigare än han själv. Så fort han hört detta förvandlade han Metis till en fluga och svalde henne.

En tid senare fick Zeus en fruktansvärd huvudvärk. Till slut stod han inte ut längre utan bad smidesguden Hefaistos öppna hans huvud för att se efter vad som värkte därinne.

Hefaistos slog upp ett hål i Zeus skalle och genast for Athena ut. Trots att Metis blivit uppäten hade hennes barn överlevt och växt till en vuxen kvinna inuti Zeus. Nu var hon trött på att sitta fast och ville komma ut!

I Iliaden (som anses vara författad av Homeros ca 700 f kr) berättas om Odysseus långa resa. Under Odysseus frånvaro från sin fru Penelope uppvaktades hon av flera friare. Penelope utsatte friarna för flera prov. Under det sista visade hon dem Odysseus pilbåge och sa att hon skulle gifta sig med den som kunde skjuta en pil genom hålen i tolv yxor i rad. En efter en försökte de, men de kunde inte ens spänna bågen. Odysseus som precis kommit hem förklädd till tiggare, bad att få försöka och skjuter en perfekt pil genom de tolv yxorna.

I Kinesisk mytologi berättas om att världen skapas av jätten Pangu. Efter att han föds grep han tag i en mycket tung yxa och klöv ägget han hade föds ur i två delar med ett kraftfullt hugg. De lättare beståndsdelarna av ägget slungades uppåt för att bilda himlen, de tyngre delarna föll ned och bildade jorden.

Även Bibeln nämner arbete med yxan i andra kungsboken, där profeten Elisha får en yxa som tappats i vattnet att flyta upp till ytan igen. Historien kan ha givit uppkomst till uttrycket ”Att kasta yxan i sjön” som betyder att ge upp sina ansträngningar.

The axe in religion and mythology

As well as being heavily symbolic, axes have also frequently appeared as attributes in various religions and mythologies.

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Ganesha is one of Hinduism’s most worshipped deities. He is the god of wisdom and he helps people to overcome obstacles. Ganesha has an elephant head and four arms, and he holds the whole universe within his enormous stomach.

In one hand, he holds an axe that is used to sever the follower’s ties to the material world.

According to Greek mythology Hephaestus, god of blacksmiths, struck Zeus, Father of the Gods, over the head with his double-headed axe. Athena, goddess of wisdom, is said to have leapt from the cloven head of Zeus, fully grown and armed. The event is depicted in an Athenian bowl from 560–550 BC.

Athena was the goddess of civilisation (the well-ordered life), wisdom and feminine crafts. She was also the goddess of strategic war, tactics, skill and planning. Her brother Ares was the god of bloodthirsty, untamed war.

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Athena’s birth was remarkable. One of Zeus’ lovers, Metis, fell pregnant. Zeus heard a prophecy that a child of Metis would be mightier than him. As soon as he heard this, he transformed Metis into a fly and swallowed her.  

Sometime later, Zeus had a terrible headache. Eventually he could stand it no longer, and he asked Hephaestus, god of blacksmiths, to open his head and find whatever was causing the pain. Hephaestus struck a hole in Zeus’ skull and out sprang Athena. Although Metis had been eaten, the child had survived and grown into an adult women inside Zeus. Now she was tired of her confinement and wanted to get out!

The Odyssey (thought to have been written by Homer in c. 700 BC) relates the long journey of Odysseus. While Odysseus is away, his wife Penelope is approached by many suitors. Penelope sets several tests for the suitors. For the last one, she shows them Odysseus’ bow and says that she will marry anyone who can shoot an arrow through the hole in 12 axes in a row. One after the other they try, but they are unable to even pull back the bow. Odysseus, who has just returned disguised as a beggar, asks to have a go and shoots the perfect arrow through the 12 axes.

Chinese mythology relates that the world was created by the giant Pangu. After he was born, he took up an extremely heavy axe and split the egg from which he had emerged into two parts with one powerful stroke. The lighter parts of the egg were flung upwards to form the sky, and the heavier parts fell down and created the earth.

The Bible also mentions an axe in the Second Book of Kings, where the prophet Elisha rescues an axe head that has fallen into the water by making the iron float to the surface again. The story may have given rise to the Swedish expression “To throw the axe in the lake”, which means to give up on a hard task.

The axe in religion and mythology

As well as being heavily symbolic, axes have also frequently appeared as attributes in various religions and mythologies.

Bild-24.jpg

Ganesha is one of Hinduism’s most worshipped deities. He is the god of wisdom and he helps people to overcome obstacles. Ganesha has an elephant head and four arms, and he holds the whole universe within his enormous stomach.

In one hand, he holds an axe that is used to sever the follower’s ties to the material world.

According to Greek mythology Hephaestus, god of blacksmiths, struck Zeus, Father of the Gods, over the head with his double-headed axe. Athena, goddess of wisdom, is said to have leapt from the cloven head of Zeus, fully grown and armed. The event is depicted in an Athenian bowl from 560–550 BC.

Athena was the goddess of civilisation (the well-ordered life), wisdom and feminine crafts. She was also the goddess of strategic war, tactics, skill and planning. Her brother Ares was the god of bloodthirsty, untamed war.

Bild-24b-acentertop.jpg

Athena’s birth was remarkable. One of Zeus’ lovers, Metis, fell pregnant. Zeus heard a prophecy that a child of Metis would be mightier than him. As soon as he heard this, he transformed Metis into a fly and swallowed her.  

Sometime later, Zeus had a terrible headache. Eventually he could stand it no longer, and he asked Hephaestus, god of blacksmiths, to open his head and find whatever was causing the pain. Hephaestus struck a hole in Zeus’ skull and out sprang Athena. Although Metis had been eaten, the child had survived and grown into an adult women inside Zeus. Now she was tired of her confinement and wanted to get out!

The Odyssey (thought to have been written by Homer in c. 700 BC) relates the long journey of Odysseus. While Odysseus is away, his wife Penelope is approached by many suitors. Penelope sets several tests for the suitors. For the last one, she shows them Odysseus’ bow and says that she will marry anyone who can shoot an arrow through the hole in 12 axes in a row. One after the other they try, but they are unable to even pull back the bow. Odysseus, who has just returned disguised as a beggar, asks to have a go and shoots the perfect arrow through the 12 axes.

Chinese mythology relates that the world was created by the giant Pangu. After he was born, he took up an extremely heavy axe and split the egg from which he had emerged into two parts with one powerful stroke. The lighter parts of the egg were flung upwards to form the sky, and the heavier parts fell down and created the earth.

The Bible also mentions an axe in the Second Book of Kings, where the prophet Elisha rescues an axe head that has fallen into the water by making the iron float to the surface again. The story may have given rise to the Swedish expression “To throw the axe in the lake”, which means to give up on a hard task.

The axe in religion and mythology

As well as being heavily symbolic, axes have also frequently appeared as attributes in various religions and mythologies.

Bild-24.jpg

Ganesha is one of Hinduism’s most worshipped deities. He is the god of wisdom and he helps people to overcome obstacles. Ganesha has an elephant head and four arms, and he holds the whole universe within his enormous stomach.

In one hand, he holds an axe that is used to sever the follower’s ties to the material world.

According to Greek mythology Hephaestus, god of blacksmiths, struck Zeus, Father of the Gods, over the head with his double-headed axe. Athena, goddess of wisdom, is said to have leapt from the cloven head of Zeus, fully grown and armed. The event is depicted in an Athenian bowl from 560–550 BC.

Athena was the goddess of civilisation (the well-ordered life), wisdom and feminine crafts. She was also the goddess of strategic war, tactics, skill and planning. Her brother Ares was the god of bloodthirsty, untamed war.

Bild-24b-acentertop.jpg

Athena’s birth was remarkable. One of Zeus’ lovers, Metis, fell pregnant. Zeus heard a prophecy that a child of Metis would be mightier than him. As soon as he heard this, he transformed Metis into a fly and swallowed her.  

Sometime later, Zeus had a terrible headache. Eventually he could stand it no longer, and he asked Hephaestus, god of blacksmiths, to open his head and find whatever was causing the pain. Hephaestus struck a hole in Zeus’ skull and out sprang Athena. Although Metis had been eaten, the child had survived and grown into an adult women inside Zeus. Now she was tired of her confinement and wanted to get out!

The Odyssey (thought to have been written by Homer in c. 700 BC) relates the long journey of Odysseus. While Odysseus is away, his wife Penelope is approached by many suitors. Penelope sets several tests for the suitors. For the last one, she shows them Odysseus’ bow and says that she will marry anyone who can shoot an arrow through the hole in 12 axes in a row. One after the other they try, but they are unable to even pull back the bow. Odysseus, who has just returned disguised as a beggar, asks to have a go and shoots the perfect arrow through the 12 axes.

Chinese mythology relates that the world was created by the giant Pangu. After he was born, he took up an extremely heavy axe and split the egg from which he had emerged into two parts with one powerful stroke. The lighter parts of the egg were flung upwards to form the sky, and the heavier parts fell down and created the earth.

The Bible also mentions an axe in the Second Book of Kings, where the prophet Elisha rescues an axe head that has fallen into the water by making the iron float to the surface again. The story may have given rise to the Swedish expression “To throw the axe in the lake”, which means to give up on a hard task.

The axe in religion and mythology

As well as being heavily symbolic, axes have also frequently appeared as attributes in various religions and mythologies.

Bild-24.jpg

Ganesha is one of Hinduism’s most worshipped deities. He is the god of wisdom and he helps people to overcome obstacles. Ganesha has an elephant head and four arms, and he holds the whole universe within his enormous stomach.

In one hand, he holds an axe that is used to sever the follower’s ties to the material world.

According to Greek mythology Hephaestus, god of blacksmiths, struck Zeus, Father of the Gods, over the head with his double-headed axe. Athena, goddess of wisdom, is said to have leapt from the cloven head of Zeus, fully grown and armed. The event is depicted in an Athenian bowl from 560–550 BC.

Athena was the goddess of civilisation (the well-ordered life), wisdom and feminine crafts. She was also the goddess of strategic war, tactics, skill and planning. Her brother Ares was the god of bloodthirsty, untamed war.

Bild-24b-acentertop.jpg

Athena’s birth was remarkable. One of Zeus’ lovers, Metis, fell pregnant. Zeus heard a prophecy that a child of Metis would be mightier than him. As soon as he heard this, he transformed Metis into a fly and swallowed her.  

Sometime later, Zeus had a terrible headache. Eventually he could stand it no longer, and he asked Hephaestus, god of blacksmiths, to open his head and find whatever was causing the pain. Hephaestus struck a hole in Zeus’ skull and out sprang Athena. Although Metis had been eaten, the child had survived and grown into an adult women inside Zeus. Now she was tired of her confinement and wanted to get out!

The Odyssey (thought to have been written by Homer in c. 700 BC) relates the long journey of Odysseus. While Odysseus is away, his wife Penelope is approached by many suitors. Penelope sets several tests for the suitors. For the last one, she shows them Odysseus’ bow and says that she will marry anyone who can shoot an arrow through the hole in 12 axes in a row. One after the other they try, but they are unable to even pull back the bow. Odysseus, who has just returned disguised as a beggar, asks to have a go and shoots the perfect arrow through the 12 axes.

Chinese mythology relates that the world was created by the giant Pangu. After he was born, he took up an extremely heavy axe and split the egg from which he had emerged into two parts with one powerful stroke. The lighter parts of the egg were flung upwards to form the sky, and the heavier parts fell down and created the earth.

The Bible also mentions an axe in the Second Book of Kings, where the prophet Elisha rescues an axe head that has fallen into the water by making the iron float to the surface again. The story may have given rise to the Swedish expression “To throw the axe in the lake”, which means to give up on a hard task.

The axe in religion and mythology

As well as being heavily symbolic, axes have also frequently appeared as attributes in various religions and mythologies.

Bild-24.jpg

Ganesha is one of Hinduism’s most worshipped deities. He is the god of wisdom and he helps people to overcome obstacles. Ganesha has an elephant head and four arms, and he holds the whole universe within his enormous stomach.

In one hand, he holds an axe that is used to sever the follower’s ties to the material world.

According to Greek mythology Hephaestus, god of blacksmiths, struck Zeus, Father of the Gods, over the head with his double-headed axe. Athena, goddess of wisdom, is said to have leapt from the cloven head of Zeus, fully grown and armed. The event is depicted in an Athenian bowl from 560–550 BC.

Athena was the goddess of civilisation (the well-ordered life), wisdom and feminine crafts. She was also the goddess of strategic war, tactics, skill and planning. Her brother Ares was the god of bloodthirsty, untamed war.

Bild-24b-acentertop.jpg

Athena’s birth was remarkable. One of Zeus’ lovers, Metis, fell pregnant. Zeus heard a prophecy that a child of Metis would be mightier than him. As soon as he heard this, he transformed Metis into a fly and swallowed her.  

Sometime later, Zeus had a terrible headache. Eventually he could stand it no longer, and he asked Hephaestus, god of blacksmiths, to open his head and find whatever was causing the pain. Hephaestus struck a hole in Zeus’ skull and out sprang Athena. Although Metis had been eaten, the child had survived and grown into an adult women inside Zeus. Now she was tired of her confinement and wanted to get out!

The Odyssey (thought to have been written by Homer in c. 700 BC) relates the long journey of Odysseus. While Odysseus is away, his wife Penelope is approached by many suitors. Penelope sets several tests for the suitors. For the last one, she shows them Odysseus’ bow and says that she will marry anyone who can shoot an arrow through the hole in 12 axes in a row. One after the other they try, but they are unable to even pull back the bow. Odysseus, who has just returned disguised as a beggar, asks to have a go and shoots the perfect arrow through the 12 axes.

Chinese mythology relates that the world was created by the giant Pangu. After he was born, he took up an extremely heavy axe and split the egg from which he had emerged into two parts with one powerful stroke. The lighter parts of the egg were flung upwards to form the sky, and the heavier parts fell down and created the earth.

The Bible also mentions an axe in the Second Book of Kings, where the prophet Elisha rescues an axe head that has fallen into the water by making the iron float to the surface again. The story may have given rise to the Swedish expression “To throw the axe in the lake”, which means to give up on a hard task.

Yxan i religion och mytologi

Yxor har utöver att vara symboler även förekommit flitigt som attribut i olika religioner och mytologier.

Bild-24.jpg

Ganesha är en av hinduismens mest populära gudar. Han är visdomens gud och hjälper människorna att övervinna hinder. Ganesha har ett elefanthuvud, fyra armar och en enorm mage som innesluter universum i hela dess väldighet.

I en av hans händer håller han en yxa som han använder för att hugga av anhängarens band till den materiella världen.

Enligt grekisk mytologi uppfanns yxan av Daedalus, (som var far till Ikaros, han med vingar av vax som smälte när han kom för nära solen). Daedalus var välkänd för sin talang och han låg bakom många saker som segel till båtar och även labyrinten.

Enligt den grekiska mytologin klöv smedguden Hefaistos överguden Zeus huvud med sin dubbeleggade yxa. Ur Zeus kluvna huvud föddes då Zeus dotter Pallas Athena, vishetens gudinna, fullvuxen och beväpnad. Händelsen avbildas på en athensk skål från 560-550 f kr.

Athena var civilisationens (det välordnade livet), vishetens och de kvinnliga hantverkens gudinna. Hon var också den kontrollerade stridens gudinna. Det betyder att hon stod för taktik, skicklighet och planering. Hennes bror Ares var den blodtörstiga, okontrollerade stridens gud.

Bild-24b-acentertop.jpg

Hennes födsel är märklig. En av Zeus älskarinnor, Metis, blev med barn. Zeus fick höra en spådom att Metis barn skulle bli mäktigare än han själv. Så fort han hört detta förvandlade han Metis till en fluga och svalde henne.

En tid senare fick Zeus en fruktansvärd huvudvärk. Till slut stod han inte ut längre utan bad smidesguden Hefaistos öppna hans huvud för att se efter vad som värkte därinne.

Hefaistos slog upp ett hål i Zeus skalle och genast for Athena ut. Trots att Metis blivit uppäten hade hennes barn överlevt och växt till en vuxen kvinna inuti Zeus. Nu var hon trött på att sitta fast och ville komma ut!

I Odysséen (som anses vara författad av Homeros ca 700 f kr) berättas om Odysseus långa resa. Under Odysseus frånvaro från sin fru Penelope uppvaktades hon av flera friare. Penelope utsatte friarna för flera prov. Under det sista visade hon dem Odysseus pilbåge och sa att hon skulle gifta sig med den som kunde skjuta en pil genom hålen i tolv yxor i rad. En efter en försökte de, men de kunde inte ens spänna bågen. Odysseus som precis kommit hem förklädd till tiggare, bad att få försöka och skjuter en perfekt pil genom de tolv yxorna.

I Kinesisk mytologi berättas om att världen skapas av jätten Pangu. Efter att han föds grep han tag i en mycket tung yxa och klöv ägget han hade föds ur i två delar med ett kraftfullt hugg. De lättare beståndsdelarna av ägget slungades uppåt för att bilda himlen, de tyngre delarna föll ned och bildade jorden.

Även Bibeln nämner arbete med yxan i andra kungsboken, där profeten Elisha får en yxa som tappats i vattnet att flyta upp till ytan igen. Historien kan ha givit uppkomst till uttrycket ”Att kasta yxan i sjön” som betyder att ge upp sina ansträngningar.

Industrielle Axtfertigung

Vor der Industrialisierung wurden Äxte von zahlreichen kleinen Schmieden gefertigt. Form und Struktur der Axt richteten sich nach ihrer Funktion, den Anforderungen des Anwenders und der handwerklichen Geschicklichkeit des Schmieds. Äxte wurden bis zur Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts in kleineren Stückzahlen von Handwerkern und der sich selbstversorgenden Bauerngemeinde hergestellt.

Im Zuge der Industrialisierung erlebte die Abholzung ihren Höhepunkt. Äxte fanden neue und große Abnehmer: Forstunternehmen und spezialisierte Forstarbeiter. Die gestiegene Axtnachfrage führte zur Kommerzialisierung und die Axtherstellung konzentrierte sich in Axtfabriken.

Große Produktreihen und Produktionsrationalisierungen senkten die Herstellungskosten. Äxte wurden standardisiert und entwickelten sich zu industriellen Massenprodukten. Unmengen an Energie wurden für die Axtfertigung verbraucht, um den Anforderungen dieser Zeit und an dieses Industrieprodukt Rechnung zu tragen. Alle Äxte eines Modells sollten genau gleich aussehen.

Bild-29.jpg

Mit dem Aufkommen von Motorsägen in den 1960er Jahren wurde die Axt als Werkzeug für Forstarbeiten von der Motorsäge verdrängt. Die Axtherstellung erlebte einen massiven Einbruch und der Verkauf von Äxten nahm dramatisch ab. Viele Axtschmieden stellten ihre Tätigkeit ein.

Die Betriebe, die sich gehalten hatten, waren gezwungen, weiter zu rationalisieren, um die Produktionskosten zu senken und als Unternehmen zu überleben. Äxte wurden möglichst schnell und preiswert gefertigt. Dies ging häufig zu Lasten von Funktion und Qualität.

Axtherstellung in der Gegenwart

Millionen von Kubikmetern Faserholz und Holz in der Forstindustrie haben noch nie eine Axt gesehen. Motorsägen und Forstmaschinen sind dort jetzt an der Tagesordnung. Äxte werden heute vor allem von Landwirten, Hausbesitzern, Hobbygärtnern und Outdoorfans in eher kleinerem Umfang eingesetzt. Dies erinnert an die Zeit vor dem Aufkommen der Forstindustrie.

Seitdem die Motorsäge die Axt aus der Forstwirtschaft verdrängt hat, mussten viele Axtschmieden geschlossen werden. So sollen sich z.B. in den USA mehr als 600 Axthersteller befunden haben. Heute sind davon nur noch wenige übrig. In Kanada, dem früheren Eldorado für Axtschmieden, existiert heute keine einzige mehr.

Von den einst 20 schwedischen Axtherstellern sind 2013 nur noch drei übrig: Hultafors/Hults Bruk in Åby, S.A. Wetterlings in Storvik und Gränsfors Bruk in Gränsfors. In Finnland werden Äxte u.a. von Fiskars gefertigt. In Norwegen und Dänemark konnte sich kein einziger großer Axthersteller halten.

Heute sieht die Produktion bei Gränsfors Bruk gänzlich anders aus als noch vor 50 Jahren. Qualifiziertes Handwerk braucht Zeit. Akkordarbeit in der Produktion gehört der Vergangenheit an. Qualität geht vor Quantität.

untitled-2-691-Redigera.jpg

Forestry companies turned axe making into an industry

Before industrialisation, axes were manufactured at numerous small forges. The design and structure of the axe were determined by its function, the user’s requirements and the craftsmanship of the axe smith. Until the mid-19th century, axes were used for small-scale tasks by craftsmen and self-sufficient farming communities.

The aggressive logging that came with industrialisation brought brand new axe customers on a large scale: forestry companies and specialist forest workers. The increase in demand for axes made axe manufacture of more commercial interest and it was concentrated in axe factories.

Long runs and production efficiencies lowered the cost of manufacture. Axes became standardised, mass-produced industrial products and large amounts of energy went into ensuring that the axes met the demands of the time regarding how an industrial product should look. All axes of a particular model were supposed to look exactly the same.

Bild-29.jpg

When chainsaws appeared in the 1960s, they replaced axes in forestry work and the axe industry came under immense pressure. Sales of axes fell dramatically and many axe forges ceased trading.

Those who kept going had to rationalise their operation severely to reduce production costs and survive. The axes were made as quickly and cheaply as possible, often at the cost of both function and quality.

Axe manufacture today

The millions of cubic metres of pulpwood and timber processed by the forest industry have never been near an axe. Chainsaws and harvesters have taken over completely. Axes are now used instead in farming, in the home, in outdoor pursuits and so on for small jobs, just as they were before the forest industry took off.

Since the chainsaw outcompeted the axe in forestry, many axe forges have closed down. The USA, for example, is said to have had over 600 axe manufacturers at one time, but now only a few remain. In Canada, which once had numerous axe forges, there are none at all.

From a peak of over 20 axe manufacturers in Sweden, by 2013 there were only three left: Hultafors/Hults Bruk in Åby, S.A. Wetterlings in Storvik and Gränsfors Bruk in Gränsfors. Finland has Fiskars, whose product portfolio includes axes. Norway and Denmark no longer have any major axe manufacturers.

Production at Gränsfors Bruk looks very different now, compared with 50 years ago. Professional craftsmanship is allowed to take the time it needs and piecework has been abandoned. The most important factor is quality, not quantity.

untitled-2-691-Redigera.jpg

Forestry companies turned axe making into an industry

Before industrialisation, axes were manufactured at numerous small forges. The design and structure of the axe were determined by its function, the user’s requirements and the craftsmanship of the axe smith. Until the mid-19th century, axes were used for small-scale tasks by craftsmen and self-sufficient farming communities.

The aggressive logging that came with industrialisation brought brand new axe customers on a large scale: forestry companies and specialist forest workers. The increase in demand for axes made axe manufacture of more commercial interest and it was concentrated in axe factories.

Long runs and production efficiencies lowered the cost of manufacture. Axes became standardised, mass-produced industrial products and large amounts of energy went into ensuring that the axes met the demands of the time regarding how an industrial product should look. All axes of a particular model were supposed to look exactly the same.

Bild-29.jpg

When chainsaws appeared in the 1960s, they replaced axes in forestry work and the axe industry came under immense pressure. Sales of axes fell dramatically and many axe forges ceased trading.

Those who kept going had to rationalise their operation severely to reduce production costs and survive. The axes were made as quickly and cheaply as possible, often at the cost of both function and quality.

Axe manufacture today

The millions of cubic metres of pulpwood and timber processed by the forest industry have never been near an axe. Chainsaws and harvesters have taken over completely. Axes are now used instead in farming, in the home, in outdoor pursuits and so on for small jobs, just as they were before the forest industry took off.

Since the chainsaw outcompeted the axe in forestry, many axe forges have closed down. The USA, for example, is said to have had over 600 axe manufacturers at one time, but now only a few remain. In Canada, which once had numerous axe forges, there are none at all.

From a peak of over 20 axe manufacturers in Sweden, by 2013 there were only three left: Hultafors/Hults Bruk in Åby, S.A. Wetterlings in Storvik and Gränsfors Bruk in Gränsfors. Finland has Fiskars, whose product portfolio includes axes. Norway and Denmark no longer have any major axe manufacturers.

Production at Gränsfors Bruk looks very different now, compared with 50 years ago. Professional craftsmanship is allowed to take the time it needs and piecework has been abandoned. The most important factor is quality, not quantity.

untitled-2-691-Redigera.jpg

Forestry companies turned axe making into an industry

Before industrialisation, axes were manufactured at numerous small forges. The design and structure of the axe were determined by its function, the user’s requirements and the craftsmanship of the axe smith. Until the mid-19th century, axes were used for small-scale tasks by craftsmen and self-sufficient farming communities.

The aggressive logging that came with industrialisation brought brand new axe customers on a large scale: forestry companies and specialist forest workers. The increase in demand for axes made axe manufacture of more commercial interest and it was concentrated in axe factories.

Long runs and production efficiencies lowered the cost of manufacture. Axes became standardised, mass-produced industrial products and large amounts of energy went into ensuring that the axes met the demands of the time regarding how an industrial product should look. All axes of a particular model were supposed to look exactly the same.

Bild-29.jpg

When chainsaws appeared in the 1960s, they replaced axes in forestry work and the axe industry came under immense pressure. Sales of axes fell dramatically and many axe forges ceased trading.

Those who kept going had to rationalise their operation severely to reduce production costs and survive. The axes were made as quickly and cheaply as possible, often at the cost of both function and quality.

Axe manufacture today

The millions of cubic metres of pulpwood and timber processed by the forest industry have never been near an axe. Chainsaws and harvesters have taken over completely. Axes are now used instead in farming, in the home, in outdoor pursuits and so on for small jobs, just as they were before the forest industry took off.

Since the chainsaw outcompeted the axe in forestry, many axe forges have closed down. The USA, for example, is said to have had over 600 axe manufacturers at one time, but now only a few remain. In Canada, which once had numerous axe forges, there are none at all.

From a peak of over 20 axe manufacturers in Sweden, by 2013 there were only three left: Hultafors/Hults Bruk in Åby, S.A. Wetterlings in Storvik and Gränsfors Bruk in Gränsfors. Finland has Fiskars, whose product portfolio includes axes. Norway and Denmark no longer have any major axe manufacturers.

Production at Gränsfors Bruk looks very different now, compared with 50 years ago. Professional craftsmanship is allowed to take the time it needs and piecework has been abandoned. The most important factor is quality, not quantity.

untitled-2-691-Redigera.jpg

Forestry companies turned axe making into an industry

Before industrialisation, axes were manufactured at numerous small forges. The design and structure of the axe were determined by its function, the user’s requirements and the craftsmanship of the axe smith. Until the mid-19th century, axes were used for small-scale tasks by craftsmen and self-sufficient farming communities.

The aggressive logging that came with industrialisation brought brand new axe customers on a large scale: forestry companies and specialist forest workers. The increase in demand for axes made axe manufacture of more commercial interest and it was concentrated in axe factories.

Long runs and production efficiencies lowered the cost of manufacture. Axes became standardised, mass-produced industrial products and large amounts of energy went into ensuring that the axes met the demands of the time regarding how an industrial product should look. All axes of a particular model were supposed to look exactly the same.

Bild-29.jpg

When chainsaws appeared in the 1960s, they replaced axes in forestry work and the axe industry came under immense pressure. Sales of axes fell dramatically and many axe forges ceased trading.

Those who kept going had to rationalise their operation severely to reduce production costs and survive. The axes were made as quickly and cheaply as possible, often at the cost of both function and quality.

Axe manufacture today

The millions of cubic metres of pulpwood and timber processed by the forest industry have never been near an axe. Chainsaws and harvesters have taken over completely. Axes are now used instead in farming, in the home, in outdoor pursuits and so on for small jobs, just as they were before the forest industry took off.

Since the chainsaw outcompeted the axe in forestry, many axe forges have closed down. The USA, for example, is said to have had over 600 axe manufacturers at one time, but now only a few remain. In Canada, which once had numerous axe forges, there are none at all.

From a peak of over 20 axe manufacturers in Sweden, by 2013 there were only three left: Hultafors/Hults Bruk in Åby, S.A. Wetterlings in Storvik and Gränsfors Bruk in Gränsfors. Finland has Fiskars, whose product portfolio includes axes. Norway and Denmark no longer have any major axe manufacturers.

Production at Gränsfors Bruk looks very different now, compared with 50 years ago. Professional craftsmanship is allowed to take the time it needs and piecework has been abandoned. The most important factor is quality, not quantity.

untitled-2-691-Redigera.jpg

Skogsbolagen gjorde yxtillverkning till industri

Före industrialismen tillverkades yxor vid många små smedjor. Yxans form och struktur bestämdes av yxans funktion, användarens krav och yxsmedens hantverksskicklighet. Yxor användes fram till mitten av 1800-talet i småskalig verksamhet av hantverkare och det självhushållande bondesamhället.

Med industrialismens hårt drivna skogsavverkning kom helt nya och stora kunder för yxor: skogsbolag ochspecialiserade skogsarbetare. Den ökade efterfrågan på yxor gjorde att yxtillverkningen fick ökat kommersiellt intresse och koncentrerades till yxfabriker.

Långa serier och rationaliseringar i produktionen sänkte  tillverkningskostnaderna. Yxor blev standardiserade, massproducerade industriprodukter och stora mängder energi förbrukades för att få yxorna att överensstämma med tidens krav på  hur en industriprodukt skulle se ut. Alla yxor av en viss modell skulle vara exakt likadana.

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När motorsågar kom under 1960-talet, ersatte de yxor i skogsarbetet och yxtillverkning blev en mycket utsatt bransch. Försäljningen av yxor minskade drastiskt och många yxsmedjor  upphörde.

De som var kvar rationaliserade hårt för att sänka produktionskostnaderna och överleva. Yxorna tillverkades så snabbt och billigt som möjligt, ofta på bekostnad av yxornas  funktion och kvalitet.

Yxtillverkning idag

De miljontals kubikmeter massaved och timmer som idag anländer till skogsindustrin har aldrig nuddats av en yxa. Där har motorsågar och avverkningsmaskiner helt tagit över. Yxor används idag  istället av lantbrukare, villaägare, fritidstorpare, friluftsmänniskor m.fl. i småskalig verksamhet, i likhet med som det var före skogsindustrins intåg.

Sedan motorsågen konkurrerat ut yxan i skogsbruket har många yxsmedjor lagts ned. I t.ex. USA lär det ha funnits över 600 yxtillverkar men idag finns endast några få kvar. I Kanada som tidigare hade  flera yxsmedjor finns idag ingen.

Från att ha varit över 20 yxtillverkare i Sverige finns idag bara tre kvar: Hultafors/Hults Bruk i Åby, S.A. Wetterlings i Storvik och Gränsfors Bruk i Gränsfors. I Finland  finns Fiskars som bl.a. tillverkar yxor. I Norge och Danmark finns det inga stora yxtillverkare kvar.

I dag ser produktionen vid Gränsfors Bruk väldigt annorlunda ut än den gjorde för 50 år sedan. Det kvalificerade hantverket får ta den tid det tar och produktionsackorden är borttagna. Det är kvalitet och  inte mängd som är viktigast.

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Forestry companies turned axe making into an industry

Before industrialisation, axes were manufactured at numerous small forges. The design and structure of the axe were determined by its function, the user’s requirements and the craftsmanship of the axe smith. Until the mid-19th century, axes were used for small-scale tasks by craftsmen and self-sufficient farming communities.

The aggressive logging that came with industrialisation brought brand new axe customers on a large scale: forestry companies and specialist forest workers. The increase in demand for axes made axe manufacture of more commercial interest and it was concentrated in axe factories.

Long runs and production efficiencies lowered the cost of manufacture. Axes became standardised, mass-produced industrial products and large amounts of energy went into ensuring that the axes met the demands of the time regarding how an industrial product should look. All axes of a particular model were supposed to look exactly the same.

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When chainsaws appeared in the 1960s, they replaced axes in forestry work and the axe industry came under immense pressure. Sales of axes fell dramatically and many axe forges ceased trading.

Those who kept going had to rationalise their operation severely to reduce production costs and survive. The axes were made as quickly and cheaply as possible, often at the cost of both function and quality.

Axe manufacture today

The millions of cubic metres of pulpwood and timber processed by the forest industry have never been near an axe. Chainsaws and harvesters have taken over completely. Axes are now used instead in farming, in the home, in outdoor pursuits and so on for small jobs, just as they were before the forest industry took off.

Since the chainsaw outcompeted the axe in forestry, many axe forges have closed down. The USA, for example, is said to have had over 600 axe manufacturers at one time, but now only a few remain. In Canada, which once had numerous axe forges, there are none at all.

From a peak of over 20 axe manufacturers in Sweden, by 2013 there were only three left: Hultafors/Hults Bruk in Åby, S.A. Wetterlings in Storvik and Gränsfors Bruk in Gränsfors. Finland has Fiskars, whose product portfolio includes axes. Norway and Denmark no longer have any major axe manufacturers.

Production at Gränsfors Bruk looks very different now, compared with 50 years ago. Professional craftsmanship is allowed to take the time it needs and piecework has been abandoned. The most important factor is quality, not quantity.

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Skogsbolagen gjorde yxtillverkning till industri

Före industrialismen tillverkades yxor vid många små smedjor. Yxans form och struktur bestämdes av yxans funktion, användarens krav och yxsmedens hantverksskicklighet. Yxor användes fram till mitten av 1800-talet i småskalig verksamhet av hantverkare och det självhushållande bondesamhället.

Med industrialismens hårt drivna skogsavverkning kom helt nya och stora kunder för yxor: skogsbolag ochspecialiserade skogsarbetare. Den ökade efterfrågan på yxor gjorde att yxtillverkningen fick ökat kommersiellt intresse och koncentrerades till yxfabriker.

Långa serier och rationaliseringar i produktionen sänkte  tillverkningskostnaderna. Yxor blev standardiserade, massproducerade industriprodukter och stora mängder energi förbrukades för att få yxorna att överensstämma med tidens krav på  hur en industriprodukt skulle se ut. Alla yxor av en viss modell skulle vara exakt likadana.

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När motorsågar kom under 1960-talet, ersatte de yxor i skogsarbetet och yxtillverkning blev en mycket utsatt bransch. Försäljningen av yxor minskade drastiskt och många yxsmedjor  upphörde.

De som var kvar rationaliserade hårt för att sänka produktionskostnaderna och överleva. Yxorna tillverkades så snabbt och billigt som möjligt, ofta på bekostnad av yxornas  funktion och kvalitet.

Yxtillverkning idag

De miljontals kubikmeter massaved och timmer som idag anländer till skogsindustrin har aldrig nuddats av en yxa. Där har motorsågar och avverkningsmaskiner helt tagit över. Yxor används idag  istället av lantbrukare, villaägare, fritidstorpare, friluftsmänniskor m.fl. i småskalig verksamhet, i likhet med som det var före skogsindustrins intåg.

Sedan motorsågen konkurrerat ut yxan i skogsbruket har många yxsmedjor lagts ned. I t.ex. USA lär det ha funnits över 600 yxtillverkar men idag finns endast några få kvar. I Kanada som tidigare hade  flera yxsmedjor finns idag ingen.

Från att ha varit över 20 yxtillverkare i Sverige finns idag bara tre kvar: Hultafors/Hults Bruk i Åby, S.A. Wetterlings i Storvik och Gränsfors Bruk i Gränsfors. I Finland  finns Fiskars som bl.a. tillverkar yxor. I Norge och Danmark finns det inga stora yxtillverkare kvar.

I dag ser produktionen vid Gränsfors Bruk väldigt annorlunda ut än den gjorde för 50 år sedan. Det kvalificerade hantverket får ta den tid det tar och produktionsackorden är borttagna. Det är kvalitet och  inte mängd som är viktigast.

untitled-2-691-Redigera.jpg